CHAPTER XXVII
COLLEGES
Responsibility of the Society for loss of Faith in Europe — The Loi Falloux — Bombay — Calcutta — Beirut — American Colleges — Scientists, Archæologists, Meteorologists, Seismologists, Astronomers — Ethnologists.The Society of Jesus is frequently charged with being responsible for the present irreligious condition of the Latin nations, of France in particular, because, having had the absolute control of education in the past, it did not train its pupils to resist the inroads of atheism and unbelief.
In the first place, the charge is based on the supposition that the Society had complete control of the education of Catholic countries, which is not the case. Thus, for instance, Montesquieu, one of the first and most dangerous of the assailants of the Church in the eighteenth century, was educated by the Oratorians. As much as thirty-seven years before the French Revolution, namely, in 1752, Father Vitelleschi, the General of the Society, addressed the following letter to the Jesuits throughout the world:
"It is of supreme importance that what we call the scholæ inferiores (those namely below philosophy and theology) should be looked after with extreme solicitude. We owe this to the municipalities which have established colleges for us, and entrusted to us the education of their youth. This is especially incumbent upon us at the present time, when such an intense desire for scholastic education everywhere manifests itself, and has called into existence so many schools of that kind. Hence, unless we are careful, there is danger of[826] our colleges being considered unnecessary. We must not forget that for a long time there were almost no other Latin schools but ours, or at least very few; so that parents were forced to send their sons to us who otherwise would not have done so. But now in many places, many schools are competing with ours, and we are exposing ourselves to be regarded as not up to the mark, and thus losing both our reputation and our scholars. Hence, our pupils are not to be detained for too long a period by a multiplication of courses, and they must be more than moderately imbued with a knowledge of the Classics. If they have not the best of masters, it is very much to be feared that they will betake themselves elsewhere and then every effort on our part to repair the damage will be futile."
In the second place, after the year 1762, that is twenty-seven years before the Revolution, there were not only no Jesuit colleges at all in France, but no Jesuits, and consequently there was an entire generation which had been trained in schools that were distinctly and intensely antagonistic to everything connected with the Society. Furthermore, it is an undeniable fact, provable by chronology, that the most conspicuous men in that dreadful upheaval, namely, Robespierre, Desmoulins, Tallien, Fréron, Chenier and others were educated in schools from which the Jesuits had been expelled before some of those furious young demagogues were born. Danton, for instance, was only three years old in 1762; Marat was a Protestant from Geneva, and, of course, was not a Jesuit pupil; and Mirabeau was educated by private tutors. The fact that Robespierre and Desmoulins were together at Louis-le-Grand has misled some into the belief that they were Jesuit students, whereas the college when they were there had long been out of the hands of the Society. The same is true of Portugal and Spain. The Society[827] had ceased to exist in Portugal as early as 1758, and in Spain in 1767.
Far from being in control of the schools of France, the whole history of the French Jesuits is that of one uninterrupted struggle to get schools at all. Against them, from the very beginning, were the University of Paris and the various parliaments of France, which represented the highest culture of the nation and bitterly resented the intrusion of the Society into the domain of education.
Not only is this true of the period that preceded but also of the one that followed the French Revolution. It was only in 1850, namely seventy-seven years after the Suppression of the Society, that the Jesuits, in virtue of the Loi Falloux, were permitted to open a single school in France. The wonder is that the incessant confiscations and suppressions which followed would permit of any educational success whatever. Nevertheless, in the short respites that were allowed them they filled the army and navy with officers who were not only conspicuous in their profession but, at the same time, thoroughgoing Catholics. Marshal Foch is one of their triumphs. Indeed it was the superiority of their education that provoked the latest suppression of the Jesuit schools in France.
It is this government monopoly of education in all the Continental countries that constitutes the present difficulty both for the Society of Jesus and for all the other teaching orders. Thus after 1872, the German province had not a single college in the whole extent of the German Empire. It could only attempt to do something beyond the frontiers. It has one in Austria, a second in Holland, and a third in Denmark. Austria has only one to its credit; Hungary one and Bohemia another. The province of Rome has one; Sicily two, one of which is in Malta, and Malta is English terri[828]tory; Naples had three and Turin four, but some of these have already disappeared. All the splendid colleges of France were closed by Waldeck-Rousseau in 1890. Spain has five excellent establishments, but they have no guarantee of permanency. Belgium has thirteen colleges, packed with students, but the terrible World War has at least for a time depleted them. Holland has three colleges of its own. England four, and Ireland three.
The expulsions, however, have their compensations. Thus when the Jesuits were expelled from Germany by Bismarck, the English government welcomed them to India, and the splendid college of Bombay was the result. Italy also benefited by the disaster. Not to mention other distinguished men, Father Ehrle became Vatican librarian, and Father Wernz, rector of the Gregorian University and subsequently General of the Society. In South America, the exiles did excellent work in Argentina and Ecuador. The Jesuits of New York gave them an entrance into Buffalo, and from that starting-point they established a chain of colleges in the West, and later, when conditions called for it, they were assimilated to the provinces of Maryland, New York and Missouri, thus greatly increasing the efficiency of those sections of the Society.
When driven out of their country, the Portuguese Jesuits betook themselves to Brazil, where their help was greatly needed; the Italians went to New Mexico and California; and the French missions of China and Syria benefited by the anti-clericalism of the home government; for Zikawei became an important scientific world-centre and Beirut obtained a university. The latter was, until the war broke out, a great seat of Oriental studies.
The most imposing institutions in Beirut, a city with a population of over 150,000, made up of Mussulmans,[829] Greeks, Latins, Americans and Jews, are those of the Jesuits. They maintain and direct outside of Beirut 192 schools for boys and girls with 294 teachers and 12,000 pupils. There is, in the city, a university with a faculty of medicine (120 students) founded in 1881 with the help of the French government; its examinations are conducted before French and Ottoman physicians and its diplomas are recognized by both France and Turkey. The university has also a seminary (60 students) for all the native Rites. Up to 1902 it had sent out 228 students including three patriarchs, fifteen bishops, one hundred and fifteen priests and eighty-three friars. Its faculty of philosophy and theology grants the same degrees as the Gregorian University in Rome. Its faculty of Oriental languages and sciences, founded in 1902, teaches literary and conversational Arabic, Hebrew, Syriac, Coptic and Ethiopic; the comparative grammar of the Semitic languages; the history and geography of the Orient; Oriental archæology; Græco-Roman epigraphy and antiquities. Its classical college has 400 pupils and its three primaries 600. A printing-house, inaugurated in 1853, is now considered to be the foremost for its output in that part of the world. Since 1871 it has published a weekly Arabic paper, and since 1898 a fortnightly review in the same language, the editors of which took rank at once among the best Orientalists. Besides continually adding to their collection of philological papers, they contribute to many scientific European reviews. (The Catholic Encyclopedia, II, 393.)
There are Jesuit colleges, also, throughout India, such as the great institutions of Bombay and Calcutta with their subsidiary colleges, and further down the Peninsula are Trichinopoly, all winning distinction by their successful courses of study. Indeed the first effort the Society makes in establishing itself in any[830] part of the world, where conditions allow it, is to organize a college. If they would relinquish that one work they would be left in peace.
An interesting personage appears in connection with the University of Beirut: William Gifford Palgrave. It is true that one period of his amazing career humiliated his former associates, but as it is a matter of history it must needs be told.
He was the son of an eminent English Protestant lawyer, Sir Francis Palgrave, and had Jewish blood in his veins. He was born in 1826, and after a brilliant course of studies at Oxford began his romantic career as a traveller. He went first to India and was an officer of Sepoys in the British army. While there, he became a Catholic, and afterwards presented himself at the novitiate of Negapatam as an applicant for admission. Unfortunately his request was granted, and forthwith he changed his name to Michael Cohen, as he said to conceal his identity. This was a most amazing mask; for Palgrave would have escaped notice, whereas everyone would immediately ask, who is this Jesuit Jew? How he was admitted is a mystery, especially as he proclaimed his race so openly.
After his novitiate he was sent to Rome to begin his theology — another mystery. Why was he not compelled to study philosophy first like everyone else? Then he insisted that Rome did not agree with his health, and he was transferred to Beirut to which he betook himself, not in the ordinary steamer, but in a sailing vessel filled with Mussulmans. On the way, he picked up Arabic. Inside of a year, namely in 1854, he was made a priest and given charge of the men's sodality which he charmed by his facility in the use of the native tongue; in the meantime he made many adventurous journeys to the interior to convert the natives, but[831] failed every time. In 1860 he was sent to France for his third year of probation under the famous Father Fouillot, whom he fascinated by his scheme of entering Arabia Petrea as its apostle. He succeeded in getting Louis Napoleon to give him 10,000 francs on the plea that he would thus carry out the scheme of the Chevalier Lascaris whom Napoleon Bonaparte had sent to the East.
At Rome, he found the Father General quite cold to the proposition, and when he had the audacity to ask Propaganda for permission to say Mass in Arabic, he was told: "Convert your Arabs first and then we shall see about the Mass." The brother who was to go with him fell ill, and the General then insisted that he should not attempt the journey without a priest as companion; whereupon Palgrave persuaded the Greek Bishop of Zahlé to ordain one of the lay professors of the college, after a few days' instruction in moral theology. Fortunately this improvised priest turned out well, and he became His Beatitude Mgr. Geraigri, patriarch of the Greek Melchites.
In 1862 the travellers set out by way of Gaza in Palestine, Palgrave as a physician, the other as his assistant. They covered the entire Arabian peninsula and were back again in Beirut at the end of fourteen months. Palgrave had made no converts, and was himself a changed man. Even his sodalists remarked it. What had happened no one ever knew. In 1864 he was sent to Maria-Laach in Germany, where the saintly Father Behrens wrestled with him in vain for a while, but he left the Society and passed over to Protestantism, securing meanwhile an appointment as Prussian consul at Mossul. In the following year he published an account of his travels and the book was a European sensation. In it he made no secret of his having been a member of the Society, which he says was[832] "so celebrated in the annals of courageous and devoted philanthropy. The many years I spent in the East were the happiest of my life." In 1884 he was British consul at Montevideo and remained there till 1888 when he died.
For twenty years he seemed never to have been ashamed of his apostasy, but three or four years before his death the grace of God found him. The change was noticed on his return from a trip to England. He had become a Catholic again. He went to Mass and received Holy Communion. Although a government official, he refused to go to the Protestant Church even for the queen's jubilee, in spite of the excitement caused by his absence. He died of leprosy. A Jesuit attended him in his last sickness, and he was buried with all the rites of the Church. These details are taken from a recent publication by Father Jullien, S. J., entitled "Nouvelle mission de la Compagnie de Jésus en Syrie" (II, iii.)
The great difficulty that confronts educators of youth in our times, is state control. In the United States it has not yet gone to extremes, but every now and then one can detect tendencies in that direction. Meantime the Society has developed satisfactorily along educational lines. According to the report of October 10, 1916 (Woodstock Letters, V 45), there were 16,438 students in its American colleges and universities. Of these 13,301 were day scholars and 3,137 boarders. There were 3,943 in the college departments, 10,502 in the high schools and 1,416 in the preparatory. Besides all this, there were commercial and special sections numbering 737. The total increase over the preceding year was 523.
The Maryland-New York provinces had 1,848 students of law, 341 of medicine, 127 of dentistry, 122 of pharmacy. Missouri had 786 students of law,[833] 643 of medicine, 776 of dentistry, 245 of pharmacy, 126 of engineering, 530 of finance, 240 of sociology, 425 of music, 43 of journalism, and 61 in the nurse's training school. New Orleans had a law school of 81 and California one of 232 students.
It is sometimes urged as an objection to Catholic colleges that they give only a Classical education, and are thus not keeping pace with the world outside. To show that the objection has no foundation in fact, it would be sufficient to enter any Jesuit college which is at all on its feet, and see the extensive and fully equipped chemical and physical laboratories, the seismic plants and in some cases the valuable museums of natural history which they possess. If it were otherwise, they would be false to all their traditions; for the Society has always been conspicuous for its achievements in the natural sciences. It has produced not only great mathematicians and astronomers, but explorers, cosmographers, ethnologists, and archæologists. Thus, for instance, there would have been absolutely no knowledge of the aborigines of North America, their customs, their manner of life, their food, their dress, their superstitions, their dances, their games, their language had it not been for the minute details sent by the missionaries of the old and new Society to their superiors. In every country where they have been, they have charted the territories over which they journeyed or in which they have labored, described their natural features, catalogued their fauna and flora, enriched the pharmacopeia of the world with drugs, foodstuffs and plants, and have located the salts and minerals and mines.
That this is not idle boasting may be seen at a glance in Sommervogel's "Bibliothèque des écrivains." Thus the names of publications on mathematics fill twenty-eight columns of the huge folio pages. Then[834] follow other long lists on hydrostatics and hydraulics, navigation, military science; surveying; hydrography and gnomics; physics, chemistry and seismology call for thirty columns; medical sciences; zoology, botany, geology, mineralogy, paleontology, rural economy and agriculture require eight. Then there are two columns on the black art. The fine arts including painting, drawing, sculpture, architecture, music, equitation, printing and mnemonics take from column 927 to 940.
According to this catalogue, the new Society has already on its lists one hundred and sixty-four writers on subjects pertaining to the natural sciences: physics, chemistry, mineralogy, zoology, botany, paleontology, geography, meteorology, astronomy, etc. The names of living writers are not recorded. Nor does this number include the writers who published their works during the Suppression, as de Mailla, who in 1785 issued in thirteen volumes a history of China with plans and maps, the outcome of an official survey of the country — a work entrusted by the emperor to the Jesuits. Father de Mailla was made a mandarin for his share of the work.
The extraordinary work on the zoology of China by the French Jesuit, Pierre Heude, might be adduced as an illustration of similar work in later times. He began his studies in boyhood as a botanist, but abandoned that branch of science when he went to the East. While laboring as a missionary there for thirty years he devoted every moment of his spare time to zoology.
He first travelled along all the rivers of Middle and Eastern China to classify the fresh-water molluscs of those regions. On this subject alone he published ten illustrated volumes between 1876 and 1885. His treatise "Les Mollusques terrestres de la vallée du Fleuve Bleu" is today the authority on that subject.[835] He then directed his attention particularly to the systematic and geographical propagation of Eastern Asiatic species of mammals, as well as to a comparative morphology of classes and family groups, according to tooth and skeleton formations. His fitness for the work was furthered by his extremely keen eye, his accurate memory, and the enormous wealth of material which he had accumulated, partly in the course of his early travels and partly in later expeditions, which carried him in all directions. These expeditions covered chiefly the eight years from 1892 to 1900. They took him to the Philippines which he visited three times; to Singapore, Batavia, the Celebes, the Moluccas, New Guinea, Japan, Vladivostock, Cochin-China, Cambodia, Siam, and Tongking. He carried on his work with absolute independence of method. He contented himself with the facts before him and sought little assistance from authorities; nor did he fear to deduce theoretical conclusions from his own observations which flatly contradicted other authorities. He continued his scientific work until shortly before his death which occurred at Zikawei on January 3, 1902. (The Catholic Encyclopedia, VII, 308.)
Albers in his "Liber Sæcularis" maintains that "in the cultivation of the natural sciences, the restored Society won greater fame than the old," and that "a glance at the men whom the Italian provinces alone have produced would be sufficient to convince the doubter." Angelo Secchi, of course, stands out most prominently, and a little later Father Barello, who with the Barnabite Denza established the Meteorological Observatory of Malta. Giambattista Pianciani was regarded with the greatest veneration in Rome because of his vast erudition as a scientist, as were Caraffa, Mancini and Foligni for their knowledge of[836] mathematics. Marchi was the man who trained the illustrious de Rossi, as an archæologist, and also the Jesuit Raffaele Garrucci whose "Monumenta delle arte cristiane primitive nella metropoli del Cristianesimo" laid the foundations of the new study of archæology. The writings of Father Gondi and Francis Tongiorgi have also contributed much to advancement in those fields of knowledge.
Faustino Arévalo was one of the exiles from Spain at the time of the Suppression. He was born at Campanario in Estremadura in 1747, and entered the Society in 1761. Six years afterwards he was deported to Italy by Charles III. In Rome he won the esteem and confidence of Cardinal Lorenzano, who proved to be his Mæcenas by bearing the expense of Arévalo's learned publications. He was held in high honor in Rome, and was appointed to various offices of trust, among them that of pontifical hymnographer and theologian of the penitenziaria, thus succeeding the illustrious Muzzarelli. When the Society was restored, he returned to Spain and was made provincial of Castile. One of his works was the "Hymnodia hispanica," a restoration of ancient Spanish hymns to their original metrical, musical and grammatical perfection. This publication was much esteemed by Cardinal Mai and Dom Guéranger. It was accompanied by a curious dissertation on the Breviary of Cardinal Quignonez. He also edited the poems of Prudentius and Dracontius and those of a fifth century Christian of Roman Africa. Besides this, he has to his credit four volumes of Jouvancy's "Gospel History," the works of Sedulius and St. Isidore and a Gothic Missal. He stands in the forefront of Spanish patristic scholars, and has shed great lustre on the Church of Spain by his vast learning, fine literary[837] taste and patriotic devotion to the Christian writers of his fatherland.
The founder of the science of archæology, according to Hurter, was Stefano Antonio Morcelli. He was a member of the old Society and re-entered it when it was restored. Even before the Suppression, which occurred twenty years after his entrance, he had established an archæological section in the Kircher Museum of Rome. When he found himself homeless, in consequence of the publication of the Brief of Clement XIV, he was made the librarian of Cardinal Albani. He refused the Archbishopric of Ragusa and continued his literary labors in Rome. His first publication was "The Style of Inscriptions." In the town of Chiari, his birthplace, to which he afterwards withdrew, he founded an institution for the education of girls, reformed the entire school system, devoted his splendid library to public use, and restored many buildings and churches. Meantime his reputation as master of epigraphic style increased and he was placed in a class of his own above all competitors. Besides his many works on his special subject, he gave to the world five volumes of sermons and ascetic treatises. When the Society was re-established he again took his place in its ranks, and died in Brescia in 1822 at the age of eighty-four. Hurter classifies him as also a historian and geographer.
Nor was Morcelli an exception. Fathers Arthur Martin and Charles Cahier are still of great authority as archæologists, chiefly for their monograph in which, as government officials, they described the Cathedral of Bourges; and likewise for their "Mélanges archéologiques," in which the sacred vessels, enamels and other treasures of Aix-la-Chapelle and of Cologne are discussed. They also wrote on the antique ivories[838] of Bamberg, Ratisbon, Munich and London; on the Byzantine and Arabian weavings; and on the paintings and the mysterious bas-reliefs of the Roman and Carlovingian periods. Their works appeared between 1841 and 1848.
A very famous Jesuit archæologist died only a few years ago, and the French government which had just expelled the Jesuits erected a monument at Poitiers to perpetuate his memory. He was Father Camille de la Croix. He was a scion of the old Flemish nobility and was born in the Château Saint-Aubert, near Tournai in Belgium, but he passed nearly all his life in France, and hence Frenchmen considered him as one of their own. He got his first schooling in Brugelette, and, when that college was given up, went with his old masters to France. In 1877 we find him mentioned in the catalogue as a teacher and writer of music. Three years later, the French provinces had been dispersed by the government, and he was then docketed as an archæologist at the former Jesuit college of Poitiers.
De la Croix's success as a discoverer was marvellous. Near Poitiers he found vast Roman baths, five acres in extent, whose existence had never even been suspected. There were tombs of Christian martyrs; a wonderful crypt dating from the beginning of the Christian era; a temple dedicated to Mercury, with its sacred wells, votive vases etc. At Sauxay, nineteen miles from Poitiers, he unearthed the ruins of an entire Roman colony; a veritable Pompeii with its temple of Apollo, its theatres, its palaces, its baths etc. He had the same success at Nantes, Saint-Philibert, and Berthouville; — the French government supplying him with the necessary funds. The "Gaulois" said of him that "in his first ten years he discovered more monuments than would have made twenty archæ[839]ologists famous." Meantime he lived in a wooden cabin, on the banks of the Clain, and there he died at the age of eighty, on April 14, 1900; and there also the French government built his monument. At the dedication, all the scientific men of the country were present, and the King of Belgium sent a representative.
Although the well-known François Moigno severed his connection with the Society, it was only after he had achieved greatness while yet in its ranks. He entered the novitiate on September 2, 1822, when he was eighteen years of age. He made his theological studies at Montrouge, and in his spare moments devoted himself to the study of the natural sciences. At the outbreak of the Revolution of 1830, he went with his brethren to Brieg in Switzerland, where he took up the study of languages, chiefly Hebrew and Arabic. When the troubles subsided in France he was appointed professor of mathematics in Paris at the Rue des Postes, and became widely known as a man of unusual attainments. He was on intimate terms with Cauchy, Arago, Ampère and others. He was engaged on one of his best known works: "Leçons de calcul différentiel et de calcul intégral" and had already published the first volume when he left the Society. He had been a Jesuit for twenty-one years. He was then made chaplain of Louis-le-Grand, one of the famous colleges owned by the Jesuits before the Suppression, and became the scientific editor of "La Presse" in 1850; of "Le Pays" in 1851, and in the following year, founded the well-known scientific journal "Cosmos," followed by "Les Mondes" in 1862, editing meanwhile "Les Actualités scientifiques." As a matter of fact, it was the Society that had formed him and enabled him to publish his greatest works.
The German, Father Ludwig Dressel, who was for many years the director of the Polytechnic in Quito, is[840] well-known for his treatises on geology, chemistry and physics. Kramers, in Holland, is the author of three volumes on chemistry. In entomology, Father Erich Wasmann is among the masters of today, and has written a series of works which have elicited the applause of the scientific world, especially his "Die moderne Biologie und die Entwicklungstheorie." (Modern Biology and the Theory of Evolution.) The writings of Bolsius on biology won for him a membership in the scientific societies of Russia, Belgium, Italy and Holland.
The first meteorological society, the "Palatina," was founded by Father Johann Hemmer in 1780, and it is noteworthy that nearly all its contributors were members of the various religious orders of Austria-Hungary, Italy and France. Its scope was not restricted to the study of meteors, for it accepted papers on ethnology, linguistics, etc. Hence we find Father Dobrizhoffer writing to it from Paraguay, Joseph Lafitaux from Canada, Johann Hanxleden, the Sanscrit scholar from Hindostan, and Lorenzo Hervás. Hanxleden and his colleague Roth were the pioneers in Sanscrit. The former was the first European to write a Sanscrit grammar and to compile a Malabar-Sanscrit-Portuguese dictionary. Hervás was one of the Jesuits expelled from Mexico, and after the Suppression was made prefect of the Quirinal Library by Pius VII. While there, he worked in conjunction with several of his former brethren in the compilation and composition of scientific works, mostly of an ethnological character. He also wrote a number of educational works for deaf mutes.
The Observatory of Stonyhurst dates back to 1838-39, when a building consisting of an octagonal centerpiece with four abutting structures was erected in the middle of the garden. But it was not until 1845[841] that a 4-inch Jones equatorial was mounted in its dome. Meteorological observations were begun as early as 1844, and magnetic in 1856 by Father Weld. In 1867 an 8-inch equatorial was set up. The chief workers were Fathers Stephen Perry, Walter Sidgreaves and Aloysius Cortie. All three were members of the Royal Astronomical Society and were frequently chosen to fill official positions. Father Perry achieved special prominence. He was the director from 1860 to 1862, and again from 1868 till his death in 1889. He was a member of more scientific expeditions than any other living astronomer. He was at Cadiz for the solar eclipse in 1870; he was sent as astronomer royal in 1874 for the transit of Venus to Kerguelen or Desolation Island, and for another observation to Madagascar in 1882. In 1886 he observed a total eclipse at Carriacou in the West Indies. For the eclipse of 1887 he was sent to Russia, and for that of 1889 to Cayenne. On the latter expedition he was attacked by a pestilential fever and died on board the warship "Comus" off Georgetown, Demerara, after receiving the last sacraments from a French Abbé resident in Georgetown. Father Perry was buried there in the cathedral cemetery. His death was that of a saint, and a touching account of it has been left by his assistant, a Jesuit lay-brother.
Father Perry's prominence in the scientific world may be judged by the honors bestowed upon him. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society and a member of the Council; also a member and Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society and, shortly before he died, he had been proposed as Vice-President. At the time of his death he held the post of President of the Liverpool Astronomical Society. He was a Fellow of the Royal Meteorological Society, a member of the Physical Society of London, and an associate of the[842] Papal Academy of the Nuovi Lincei, the oldest scientific society in Europe. He belonged also to the Societé Géographique of Antwerp, and had received the degree of Doctor of Science honoris causa from the Royal University of Ireland. For several years before his death, he served on the committee of the council on education, as well as on the committee for comparing and reducing magnetic observations, for which work he had been appointed by the British Association for the Advancement of Science, a body of which he was a life-member. In 1887 and 1889 he attended at Paris the meetings of the Astrographic Congress for the photographic charting of the heavens.
In the "Monthly Notices" of the Royal Astronomical Society (L, iv) the following resolution appears on the occasion of his death: "The Council having heard with the deepest regret of the death of the Rev. S. J. Perry while on the Society's expedition to observe the total eclipse at the Salut Islands, desire to put on record their sense of the great loss which astronomy has suffered by the death of so enthusiastic and capable an observer, and to offer to his relations and to his colleagues at Stonyhurst the expression of their sincere sympathy and condolence on this sad event." The list of his scientific papers covers twelve pages of his biography. Father Cortie, his associate in the Stonyhurst Observatory, says of him: "His death was glorious, for he died a victim to his sense of duty and his zeal for science. Truly he may lay claim to the title of 'martyr of science,' and a part of the story of the eclipse of December 22, 1889, will be the account of how Father Perry was carried from a sick bed to take his last observation."
Besides the Observatories in Granada and Oña the Spanish Jesuits have another near Tortosa. The main object of the latter is the study of terrestrial[843] magnetism, seismology, meteorology, study of the sun, etc. It has five separate buildings and a valuable periodical regularly published by the observers.
The Zo-se Observatory near Zikawei in China is in charge of the French Fathers. The Observatory is about 80 feet in length. It has a library of 20,000 volumes with numerous and valuable Chinese manuscripts. They have another station in Madagascar, which is 4,600 feet above sea-level, and consequently higher by 100 metres than the Lick Observatory in California. When the Jesuits were expelled from Madagascar, the Observatory was demolished by the natives who thought it was a fortress. It was rebuilt later at the expense of the French government and the director, Father Colin, was made a corresponding Member of the French Academy. In 1890, 1895, 1898 and 1899 the observers were honored by their home government with purses of considerable value, one being of 6,000 and another of 3,000 francs.
There are other observatories at Calcutta, Rhodesia, Feldkirch, Louvain, Oudenbosch (Holland), Puebla (Mexico), Havana, Woodstock and other Jesuit colleges in the United States; these are attracting notice principally by their seismographical reports. The most conspicuous of all these North American observatories is that of Georgetown which was founded in 1842-43, about the same time as the Naval Observatory. It was built under the direction of Father Curley, whose determination of the longitude of Washington in conjunction with Sir G. B. Airy, the Astronomer Royal of Greenwich, England, was made by observing a series of transits of the moon, and was later shown by the electric telegraph to have been correct to within the tenth of a second. Fathers De Vico, Sestini and Secchi labored at Georgetown.[844] Secchi's "Researches in Electrical Rheometry" was published in 1852 by the Smithsonian Institute. It was his first literary contribution to science. Sestini's drawings of the sun spots were published by the Naval Observatory. In 1889 Father Hagen, then the director, published his "Atlas stellarum variabilium." In 1890 Father Fargis solved the question of "the personal equation" in astronomical observations by his invention of the Photochronograph. It had been attempted by Father Braun in Kalocsa (Hungary) and by Repsola in Königsberg, but both failed. Professors Pickering and Bigelow in the United States had also given it up, but Father Fargis solved the difficulty by a fixed photographic plate and a narrow metal tongue attached to the armature of an electric magnet. It has proved satisfactory in every test.
In Sommervogel's "Bibliothèque" the list of the astronomical works written by Secchi covers nineteen pages quarto, in double columns. He was equally active in physics and meteorology and his large meteorograph described in Ganot's "Physics" merited for him the Grand Prix (100,000 francs) and the Cross of the Legion of Honor at the Paris Universal Exposition in 1867. It was conferred upon him by the hand of the Emperor Napoleon, in the presence of the Emperors of Russia and Austria and the Kings of Prussia and Belgium. The Emperor of Brazil sent him a golden rose as a token of appreciation.
The "Atlas stellarum variabilium" by Father Johann Hagen is according to "Popular Astronomy" (n. 81, p. 50) the most important event in the star world. Ernst Harturg (V. J. S., vol. 35) says: "It will without doubt become in time an indispensable requisite of the library of every observatory just as the Bonn maps have become." Father Hagen has also won distinction in the mathematical world by his[845] "Synopsis der höheren Mathematik," in four volumes quarto.
The seismological department of Georgetown, under Father Francis A. Tondorf, has attained an especial prominence in the United States. Its equipment is of the latest perfection, and its earthquake reports are those most commonly quoted in the daily press of America.
Important in their own sphere are the books "Astronomisches aus Babylon" by Fathers Joseph Epping and Johann Nepomuk Strassmaier, and "Die babylonische Mondrechnung" by Epping. F. K. Ginzel (in V. J. S., vol. 35.) expresses the following opinion of them: "It is well known that the investigations made by the Jesuit Father Epping, in conjunction with the Assyriologist Father Strassmaier, upon many Babylonian astronomical bricks have had as a consequence that the scientific level upon which the history of astronomy had formerly placed the Babylonians must be taken considerably higher. Epping's investigations now receive a very valuable extension through the labor of Father Kugler of Valkenburg, Holland. From the communications received concerning Kugler's work the importance of his book to the history of astronomy may be inferred."
"Die Gravitations-Constante" (Vienna, 1896), by Father Carl Braun of Mariaschein, Bohemia, represents about eight years of patient work, and according to Poynting (Proc. of the Royal Soc. Inst, of Great Britain, XVI, 2) "bears internal evidence of great care and accuracy. He obtained almost exactly the same result as Professor Boys with regard to the earth's mean density. Father Braun carried on his work far from the usual mechanical laboratory facilities and had to make much of the apparatus himself. His patience and persistence command our highest admiration."
[846] With regard to the "Kosmogonie vom Standpunkte christlicher Wissenschaft," by Father Braun, Dr. Foster says: (V. J. S., vol. 25) "this problem, mighty in every aspect, is treated from all points of view with clearness and impressiveness. One could hardly find at this time in any other book all the essential features of a theory of the sun collected together in such a directive manner."
Perhaps the famous phrase of St. Ignatius, Quam sordet tellus quum cælum aspicio, had something to do with the Society's passion for astronomy. "How sordid the earth is when I look at the sky." His sons have been looking at the sky from the beginning not only spiritually but through telescopes, and many of them have become famous as astronomers. This is all the more notable, because star-gazing was only a secondary object with them. They were first of all priests and scientific men afterwards. As early as 1591 Father Perrerin, in his "Divinatio astrologica," denounced astrology as a superstition although his Protestant friend, the great Kepler, did not admit the distinction between it and astronomy. The book of Perrerin's went through five editions. Father de Angelis published in 1604 five volumes entitled "In astrologos conjectores" (Against astrological guessers). As late as 1676, the work was still in demand, for illustrious personages like Rudolph II, Wallenstein, Gustavus Adolphus, Catherine de' Medici and even Luther and Melanchthon with a host of others were continually having their horoscopes taken.
Another eminent worker was Father Riccioli, of whom we read: "If you want to know the ancient follies on this point consult Riccioli." (Littrois in "Wunder des Himmels," 1886, 604.) The implication might be that Riccioli approved of them, but the reverse is the case, for, as Thomas Aquinas furnishes a list of[847] every actual and almost every possible theological and philosophical error, but after each adds videtur quod non, which he follows up by a refutation, so does Riccioli in his Astrology. He was a genius. He became a Jesuit when he was sixteen, and for years never thought of telescopes. He taught poetry, philosophy and theology at Parma and Bologna, and took up astronomy only when his superiors assigned him to that study. Being an Italian, he did not like Copernicus or Kepler. They were from the Protestant North and had refused to accept the Gregorian Calendar. He admitted, indeed, that the Copernican system was the most beautiful, the most simple, the best conceived, but not solid, so he made one of his own, but did not adhere to it tenaciously.
Appreciating the deficiencies of the astronomy of the ancients, he composed the famous "Almagestum novum," which placed the whole science on a new basis. Beginning by the measurement of the earth, he produced, though he made mistakes, the first meteorolog-system. His lunar observations revealed 600 spots on the moon, which is fifty more than had been found by Hevelius. His collaborator, Grimaldi, the greatest mathematician of his age, made the maps. His remarks on libration fill an entire volume, and the writer in the "Biographie universelle" gives him the credit of experimenting on the oscillations of the pendulum before Galileo. His health was always poor, but he worked like a giant. His "Almagestum" consists of 1500 folio pages, and is described as a treasure of astronomical erudition. Lalande quotes from it continually. His "Astronomia reformata" is in two volumes folio, and he has twelve folio volumes on geography and hydrography. Its learning is astounding. Thus, for instance, in the second part of his "Chronologia" there is a list of the principal events from the creation[848] to the year 1688, along with the names of kings, patriarchs, nations, heresies, councils, and great personages, which was really collateral matter.
What the Jesuit astronomers accomplished in China from the time of Ricci down to Hallerstein in 1774 has been continued there to the present day. The first government observatory in Europe was erected in the University of Vienna, then in the hands of the Jesuits. There were others at Vilna, Schwetzingen and Mannheim. Twelve other private ones had been built in the various European colleges of the Society. The establishment of these observatories was providential, for when the Society was suppressed they afforded occupation and support to a great number of dispersed Jesuits, who remained in charge of them during their forty years of homelessness and kept alive the old spirit of the Order in its affection for that particular study. As in the old Society this work is still a matter of private enterprise. As far as we are aware there is only one observatory where a government assists, the Observatory of Manila, in which the employees are salaried by the United States government. The equipment itself, however, was provided by the Jesuits, who reduced their living expenses to the minimum in order to build the house and buy the instruments.
On the other hand, the number of actual Jesuit observatories in the strict sense of the term already rivals that of the old Society. The Roman establishment which had been made famous by Scheiner, Gottignes, Asclepi, Borgondius, Maire and Boscovich was continued during the Suppression by the secular priest Calandrelli. In 1824 Leo XII restored it to the Society, and Father Dumouchel took charge of it with De Vico as an assistant. The latter's reputation was European. He was known as the Comet Chaser, for he had discovered eight of them. The well-known[849] five and a half years periodic comet bears his name. He succeeded Dumouchel as director in 1840, and was holding that office when the Revolution of 1848 drove the Jesuits from Rome. He was received with great enthusiasm in France by Arago, and in England he was offered the directorship of the Observatory of Madras but he preferred to go to Georgetown in the United States. Being called to London on business, he died there on November 15, 1848, at the age of 43. Herschel wrote his obituary in the "Notices of the Astronomical Society."
Secchi had gone with De Vico to Georgetown, but was recalled to Rome in 1849 by Pius IX, and given charge of the observatory. He was born at Reggio in 1818, and, after studying in the Jesuit college there, entered the Society at the age of sixteen. He began as a tutor in physics and continued at that work when he went to Georgetown. Astronomy had as yet not appealed to him, but in Washington he met the famous hydrographer, meteorologist and astronomer, Maury, and a deep affection sprang up between them, and Secchi dedicated one of his books to his American friend. His appointment to the Roman Observatory in 1859 was due to the recommendation of De Vico, and in two years his brilliant success as an observer attracted the attention of the scientific world. He began by a revision of Struve's "Catalogue of Double Stars," which necessitated seven years' strenuous work, and he was able to verify 10,000 of the entries. Meantime he was studying the physical condition of Saturn, Jupiter, Mars and the four great moons of Jupiter. In 1852 the moon became the special object of his investigations, and his micrometrical map of the great crater was so exact that the Royal Society of London had numerous photographs made of it. In 1859 he published his great work "Il quadro fisico del sistema[850] solare secondo il piu recenti osservazioni." The study of the sun spots was his favorite task, and his expedition to Spain in 1860 to observe the total eclipse established the fact that the red protuberances around the edge of the eclipsed sun were real features of the sun itself and not optical illuminations or illuminated mountains of the moon. He began the "Sun Records" in Rome, and they are kept up till this day. No other observatory has anything like them. All this, with his inventions, and the study of the spectroscope, heliospectroscope and telespectroscope, besides the mass of scientific results which he arrived at, has put him in the very first rank of astronomers. He was equally conspicuous as a meteorologist and a physicist. When the Piedmontese took Rome, Secchi was offered the rank of senator and the superintendency of all the observatories of Italy if he would leave the Society. Of course he scoffed at the proposal; but his authority in Italy was so great that the invaders did not dare to expel him from his observatory. He died in 1878.
Clerke says of him: "The effective founders of stellar photography were Father Secchi, the eminent Jesuit astronomer of the Collegio Romano, and Dr. Huggins with whom the late Professor Mullen was associated. The work of each was happily made to supplement that of the other. With less perfect appliances, the Roman astronomer sought to render his work extensive rather than precise; whereas, at Upper Tulse Hill, searching accuracy over a narrower gauge was aimed at and attained. To Father Secchi is due the merit of having executed the first spectroscope view of the heavens. Above 4000 stars were all passed in review by him and classified according to the varying qualities of their light. His provisional establishment (1863-7) of four types of stellar spectra[851] has proved a genuine aid to knowledge, through the facilities afforded by it for the arrangement and comparison of rapidly accumulating facts. Moreover it is scarcely doubtful that these spectral distinctions correspond to differences in physical conditions of a marked kind."
"I saw the great man," said one who was in the audience of the splendid hall of the Cancelleria, "when he was giving a course on the solar spectrum. The vast auditorium was crowded with a brilliant throng in which you could see cardinals, archbishops, monsignori and laymen, all representing the highest religious, diplomatic and scientific circles. Though an Italian, Secchi spoke in French that was absolutely perfect. Everyone was enthralled, but what captivated me was the gentleness and even deference with which he spoke to the men who were adjusting the screens. He almost seemed to be their servant and I could not help saying to myself, 'Oh! I love you.' I saw him later in the street. It was in the turbulent days of the Italian occupation. He was walking alone; his head slightly bowed. Suddenly the cry was heard: 'Death to the Jesuits!' and an excited mob was seen rushing towards him. He stood still; grasped the stout stick in his hand, glared at them; and they fled. I never saw anything like it. I loved him before. I adored him now." In brief, Secchi was a great man in the eyes of the world, but he was a greater religious. Indeed it is said that when his superiors told him to apply himself to mathematics he burst into tears. He wanted to be a missionary. He was such, while being at the same time one of the most distinguished men in the scientific world.
The Manila Observatory in the Philippines, strictly speaking, began its meteorological service in 1865,[852] though observations had been made many years previously. In 1881 it was officially approved by the Spanish government and in 1901 by that of the United States. The meteorological importance and efficiency of the Manila Observatory overshadows its astronomical, for the reason that it is situated in the eastern typhoon path. Astronomy, however, is by no means neglected. From 1880 up to the present time it has rendered very valuable services to the world. First, the official time was given to the city of Manila and, after the American occupation, it was extended to all the telegraph stations throughout the islands. Secondly, about one hundred ship chronometers are annually compared and rated at the Observatory free of charge.
In 1894 Father José Algué began to complete the astronomical equipment and erected a new building at the cost of $40,000, equipping it with instruments of the latest and best type. Three years later he was given charge of the whole establishment, and is now rendering immense and indispensable service to the shipping interests of the Far East by his weather predictions. His barocyclonometer is carried on every ship in those waters. In 1900 he was sent to Washington by the United States government to supervise the printing of his immense work entitled "El Archipiélago Filipino," and he gave later to the World's Fair at St. Louis one of its remarkable exhibits, — a relief map covering a great expanse on the ground and representing every island, river, bay, cape, peninsula, volcano, village and city of the Archipelago. Previous to his appointment in Manila Father Algué had worked for several years in the Georgetown Observatory.
In the matter of the theological teaching it will suffice to note that the Collegium Germanicum was given back to the Society in 1829 and entrusted to Father Aloysius[853] Landes as rector. The German government for some time forbade German students to attend its classes, but in 1848 there were 251 on the roster. Since it opened its doors to the present day, it has given to the Church 4 cardinals, 4 archbishops, 11 bishops, 3 coadjutor bishops, 1 vicar Apostolic, besides a number of distinguished professors, canons and priests.
A very notable recognition of the Society in the field of education was given by Pius IX, when he confided to it the government of the college known as the Pium Latinum. The distinguished ecclesiastic who suggested it was the Apostolic prothonotary, José Ignacio Eyzaguirre, a Chilian by birth. The college was founded in 1858 to prepare a body of learned priests for the various countries of South America. In 1908 at its golden jubilee it could show a record not only of distinguished priests but of a cardinal, Joachim Arcoverde de Albuquerque Cavalcanti, and of 30 bishops, though it began with only 15 students. The house that first sheltered them was extremely small, but the Pope saw to it that they had a larger establishment. While urging the bishops of Latin America to support it liberally — for having been Apostolic delegate in Chili no one knew better than he the urgent necessity of such a school — he himself was lavish in his gifts of money, books, vestments, etc. In 1867 a part of the old Jesuit novitiate was purchased from the Government, and although in 1870 the Jesuits were expelled from Rome those in the Pio Latino were not disturbed. In 1884 a new site was found near the Vatican and on the banks of the Tiber where there is now a splendid college with a capacity of 400 students. In 1905 Cardinal Vives y Tuto published an Apostolic Constitution which gave the title "Pontifical" to the college and confided the[854] education in perpetuum to the Society. This Constitution had been asked for by the Latin American Bishops during the Council, it was promised by Leo XIII, and finally realized by Pius X. When formally handed over to the Jesuits there were 104 alumni present. The trust was accepted in the name of Father General by Father Caterini, provincial of the Roman province.
[855]
CHAPTER XXVIII
LITERATURE
Grammars and Lexicons of every tongue — Dramas — Histories of Literature — Cartography — Sinology — Egyptology — Sanscrit — Catholic Encyclopedia — Catalogues of Jesuit Writers — Acta Sanctorum — Jesuit Relations — Nomenclator — Periodicals — Philosophy — Dogmatic, Moral and Ascetic Theology — Canon Law — Exegesis.The literary activity of the Society has always been very great, not only in theological, philosophical and scientific fields, but also in those that are specifically designated as pertaining to the belles lettres. Thus, under the heading "Linguistics," in Sommervogel's "Bibliotheca" we find treatises on philology, the origin of language, grammatical theories, a pentaglottic vocabulary, a lexicon of twenty-four languages, the first language, etc. Then come the Classics. Under "Greek," there are two huge pages with the names of various grammars; besides dictionaries, exercises and collections of old Greek authors. Under "Latin," we find four pages of grammars and lexicons; some of the latter giving the equivalents in Portuguese, Tamul, Chinese, French, Polish, Brazilian, Bohemian, Syrian, Armenian and Japanese. After that we have: "Elegances," "Roots," "Ancient and Modern Latin," "Anthologies," "Pronunciations," "Medullas" etc. Six pages are devoted to grammars and dictionaries of European languages, not only the ordinary ones but also Basque, Bohemian, Celtic, Croat, Illyrian, Wend, Provençal, Russian and Turkish. The Asiatic languages follow next in order: Annamite, Siamese, Arabian, Armenian, Georgian, Chinese, Cochinese, Hebrew, Hindustanee, Japanese, Persian, Sanscrit[856] and Syrian; with two columns of Angolese, Caffre, Egyptian, Ethiopian, Kabyle and Malgache grammars. The Malgache all bear the dates of the late nineteenth century, and there is an Esquimaux Grammar by Father Barnum dated 1901.
The tongues of most of the North and South American Indians are represented; the dictionaries of the South American Indians were all written by the Fathers of the old Society.
The books devoted to the study of eloquence are appalling in their number. They are in all languages and on all sorts of subjects, sacred and profane. There are panegyrics, funeral orations, coronation speeches, eulogies, episcopal consecrations, royal progresses, patriotic discourses, but only occasionally does the eye catch a modern date in the formidable list of sixty-three folio pages.
Latin poetry claims fifty-seven pages for the titles of compositions or studies. Poetry in the modern languages is much more modest and requires only as many columns as the ancients demanded pages. The English list is very brief; the Italian very long; and while the ancient Jesuits seemed to have little fear of breaking forth into verse, the modern worshippers of the Muse, except when they utter their thoughts in Malgache, or Chouana or Tagale or Japanese, are very cautious.
Pious people perhaps may be scandalized to hear that the Jesuits of the old Society wrote a great deal for the theatres; it was not, however, for the theatres of the world, but for the theatres of their colleges. Hence in the chapter entitled "Theatre," after a number of treatises on "The Restriction of Comedies," "Théatre des Grecs," "Liturgical Drama," "Reflections on the Danger of Shows," "The mind of St. Paul, St. Thomas Aquinas and St. Francis de Sales on Plays;"[857] etc., we come face to face with the titles of plays that crowd and blacken by their close print no less than ten huge folio pages. They are contributed by the Jesuits of all countries. Germany especially was very prolific in this kind of literature, claiming as many as four pages of titles; England furnishes only seven dramas in all, three of which are modern. Three of the ancient plays had for their author no less a personage than the Blessed Edmund Campion. They were entitled "The Sacrifice of Isaac," "The Tragedy of King Saul," while Southwell credits him with "Nectar et Ambrosia," which was acted before the emperor. All these were written in 1575, when he was professor of rhetoric in Bohemia.
Belgium has a long list to its credit, and among the dramatists appears the very eminent Ignace Carbonelle, but only as the author of the text of a Cantata for the jubilee of Pius IX in 1877. In France occurs the name of Arsène Cahours, who wrote many tragedies and even a vaudeville, which he called "L'enterrement du Père Simon, le brocanteur." Longhaye's well-known college plays are on the list.
There are many oratorios, but it is feared that the timid will be scandalized to hear that an entire column is required for the names of the authors of ballets. One of the writers is no less a personage than the distinguished historian Jouvancy. The ballets are interludes; there was no impropriety in these dances, however, for no female characters appeared, and the college boys for whom they were written had to do all the dancing themselves.
"Many of these dramas," says Father Schwickerath quoting Janssen, "were exhibited with all possible splendor, as for instance those given at La Flèche in 1614 before Louis XIII and his court. But it seems that nowhere was greater pomp displayed than at[858] Munich where the court liberally contributed to make the performances especially brilliant. In 1574 the tragedy 'Constantine' was played on two successive days, and the whole city was beautifully decorated. More than one thousand actors took part in the play. Constantine entered the city in a triumphal chariot surrounded by four hundred horsemen in glittering armor. At the performance of 'Esther' in 1577, the most splendid costumes and gems were furnished from the treasury of the Duke; and at the banquet of King Assuerus one hundred precious dishes of gold and silver were used."
Those old Jesuits seemed to be carrying out the famous order of La Mancha's Knight when the ordinary stage was too small: "Then build a house or act it on the plain;" or as a recent writer declares "Like Richard Wagner in our days, the Jesuits aimed at and succeeded in uniting all the arts within the compass of the drama. The effect of such plays was like those of the Oberammergau Passion Play, ravishing, overpowering. Even people ignorant of the Latin tongue were captivated by these representations and the concourse of people was usually very great. In 1565 'Judith' was acted before the court in Munich and then repeated in the public square. Even the surrounding walls and roofs of the houses were covered with eager spectators. In 1560 the comedy 'Euripus' was given in the courtyard of the college at Prague before a crowd of more than eight thousand people. It had to be repeated three times and was asked for again and again."
The early German parsons denounced these dramas as devices for propagating idolatry, but on the other hand a very capable critic Karl von Reinhardstottner says: "In the first century of their history the Jesuits did great work in this line. They performed dramas[859] full of power and grandeur, and though their dramatic productions did not equal the fine lyrics of the Jesuit poets Balde and Sarbiewski, still in the dramas of Fabricius, Agricola and others, there is unmistakable poetic spirit and noble seriousness. How could the enormous success of their performances be otherwise explained? And who could doubt for a moment that by their dramas they rendered great service to their century; that they advanced culture, and preserved taste for the theatre and its subsidiary arts? It would be sheer ingratitude to undervalue what they effected by their dramas."
Goethe was present at a play given in 1786 at Ratisbon. It was during the Suppression, but happily the Jesuit traditions had been maintained in the college. He has left his impressions in writing: "This public performance has convinced me anew of the cleverness of the Jesuits. They rejected nothing that could be of any conceivable service to them, and they knew how to wield their weapons with devotion and dexterity. This is not cleverness of the merely abstract order; it is a real fruition of the thing itself; an absorbing interest which springs from the practical uses of life. Just as this great spiritual society had its organ-builders, its sculptors, its gilders so there seem to be some who by nature and inclination take to the drama; and as their churches are distinguished by a pleasing pomp, so these prudent men have seized on the sensibility of the world by a decent theatre." (Italien Reise, Goethe Werke, Cotta's Ed. 1840 XXIII p. 3-4.)
Tiraboschi began his literary work when a young professor in Modena by editing the Latin-Italian dictionary of Monza, but he made so many corrections that it was practically a new work. Subsequently he was appointed librarian at Milan, and by means of the documents he discovered, wrote a "History of[860] the Humiliati," which filled up a gap in the annals of the Church. While librarian in the ducal library at Modena, he began his monumental work on the "Storia della letteratura italiana." This history extends from Etruscan times to 1700, and required eleven years of constant labor to complete it.
Hurter tells us "Michael Cosmas Petrus Denis was a most celebrated bibliographer, whose almost innumerable works must be placed in the category of humanistic literature." He entered the Society in Upper Austria on October 17, 1747, and taught rhetoric for twelve years in the Theresian College for Nobles, where he won some renown by his poetry. At the time of the Suppression of the Society, to which he ever remained grateful and attached, he was given charge of the Garelli Library and devoted himself to the study of literature and bibliography. His public lectures attracted immense throngs from far and near. He was promoted to be royal counsellor by Emperor Leopold and was made custodian of the Imperial Library. By that time he was a European celebrity. De Backer in his "Bibliotheca" mentions ninety-three of his publications. Hurter classifies as the most important the "Denkmale der christlichen Glauben-und Sittenlehre." His poems which he signed "Sined," which was Denis spelled backward, won him the name of Bard of the Danube, and helped considerably to promote the study of German in Austria. He was one of a group of poets whose chief aim was to arouse German patriotism. Ossian was their ideal and inspiration, and Denis translated the Gaelic poet into German (1768-69), and in addition he published two volumes of poems just one year before the Suppression. Naturally these patriotic effusions in verse by a Jesuit attracted considerable attention. Denis died in Vienna on 20 September, 1800.
[861] Father Baumgartner has won a high place in the domain of letters by his large work entitled "History of the Literature of the Entire World." Besides this he has to his credit three volumes on "Goethe," another on "Longfellow;" a fifth on "Vondel," a sixth entitled "Ausflüge in das Land der Seein" and a seventh called "Island und die Faröer."
Of Father Faustino Arévalo, the distinguished hymnographer and patrologist, we have spoken above.
Geographical themes appealed to many writers both of the old and the new Society, and also to those of the intervening period. The subjects relate to every part of the world. There is, for instance, "The German Tyrol" by the Italian Bresciani; "The Longitude of Milan" by Lagrange; "The Geography of the Archipelago" by F. X. Liechtlé. This archipelago was the West Indies. His brother Ignatius executed a similar work on the Grecian Islands. He went to Naxos in 1754, and died there in 1795. "Chota-Nagpur" is described in 1883, "Abyssinia" in 1896, and the "Belgian Congo" in 1897. Veiga writes of the "Orinoco" in 1789, and Armand Jean of the "Polynesians" in 1867. There is no end of maps such as "Turkestan and Dzoungaria," "China and Tatary," "The Land of Chanaan," "Paraguay," "Lake Superior," "The Land between the Napo and the Amazons." The famous maps of Mexico by Father Kino have been reproduced by Hubert Bancroft in his "Native Races."
Joseph de Mayoria de Mailla's great work called "Toung-Kian-Kang-mou," which is an abstract of the Chinese annals, was sent to France in 1737, but was not published until 1785. He was the first European to give the world a knowledge of the classic historical works of the Chinese. His work is of great value for the reason that it provides the most important[862] foundation for a connected history of China. He sent along with it many very valuable maps and charts — the result of his work in making a cartographical survey of the country; the part assigned to him including the provinces of Ho-nan, Kiang-hinan, Tshe-Kiang, Fo-Kien and the Island of Formosa. As a reward for his labor the emperor made him a mandarin, and when he died at the age of seventy-nine very elaborate obsequies were ordered by imperial decree.
Father Joseph Fischer, a professor at Feldskirch, is known in all the learned societies of the world for his "Die Entdeckungen der Normannen in America" and also for his "Cosmographiæ introductio" of Martin Waldseemüller, on whose map the name "America" first appeared. The maps and studies of old Huronia by Father Jones have been published by the Canadian Government.
John Baptist Belot, who died in 1904, won a reputation as an Orientalist, as did his associate Father Cheiko by his "Chrestomathia Arabica," in five volumes, and also by his Arabic Lexicon. Their fellow-worker Father Lammens is now a professor in the Biblical Institute in Rome. As they lived a considerable time in Syria they have a distinct advantage over other Europeans in this particular study.
Andrew Zottoli is an authority as a sinologist. The misfortune of being exiled from Italy in 1848 gave him the advantage, which he would not otherwise have had, of becoming proficient in Chinese, for he lived fifty-four years in Kiang-nan. Besides his Chinese catechism and grammar, he has published a complete course of Chinese literature in five volumes, and a universal dictionary of the Chinese language in twelve.
To this list may be added what a recent critic called the monumental work of the illustrious Father Beccari, known as "Scriptores rerum ægyptiacarum." It[863] consists of sixteen volumes, and includes the entire period of Egyptian history from the sixteenth to the nineteenth century. In this category, Father Strassmaier represents the Society by his works on Assyriology and cuneiform inscriptions. With him is Father Dahlman whose "Das Mahabharata als Epos und Rechtbuch," "Nirvana," "Buddha," and "Mahabharata Studien" have won universal applause.
Luigi Lanzi, the Italian archæologist, was born at Olmo near Macerata in 1732, and entered the Society in 1749. At its Suppression, the Grand Duke of Tuscany made him the assistant director of the Florentine Museum. He devoted himself to the study of ancient and modern literature, and was made a member of the Arcadians. The deciphering of monuments, chiefly Etruscan, was one of his favorite occupations and resulted in his writing his "Saggio di lingua etrusca" in 1789. Four years later he produced his noted "History of Painting in Italy." His other works included a critical commentary on Hesiod's "Works and Days," with a Latin and an Italian translation in verse; three books of "Inscriptiones et carmina," translations of Catullus, Theocritus and others, besides two ascetic works on St. Joseph and the Sacred Heart respectively. He died in 1810 four years before the Restoration.
Angelo Mai is one of the very attractive figures at the beginning of the nineteenth century. He had studied at the seminary of Bergamo and had as professor, Father Mozzi, a member of the suppressed Society. When the saintly Pignatelli opened the novitiate at Parma in 1799, Mozzi joined him and young Angelo who was then seventeen years old went there as a novice. He was sent to Naples in 1804 to teach humanities, but was obliged to leave when the French occupied the city. He was then summoned to Rome,[864] and ordained a priest. While there, he met two exiled Jesuits from Spain: Monero and Monacho, who besides teaching him Hebrew and Greek, gave him his first instructions in paleography, showing him how to manipulate and decipher palimpsests. In 1813 he was compelled by the order of the duke to return to his native country, and was appointed custodian of the Ambrosian Library at Milan. There he made his first great discoveries of a number of precious manuscripts, which alone sufficed to give him an important place in the learned world. In 1819 at the suggestion of Cardinals Consalvi and Litta, the staunchest friends of the Society, Pius VII appointed him librarian of the Vatican, with the consent of the General.
From all this it is very hard to understand how Mai is generally set down as having left the Society. Albers says so in his "Liber sæcularis," Hurter in his "Nomenclator," as does Sommervogel in his "Bibliotheca," and his name does not appear in Terrien's list of those who died in the Society. In spite of all this, however, the expression "left the Society" seems a somewhat cruel term to apply to one who was evidently without reproach and who was asked for by the Sovereign Pontiff. He was made a cardinal by Gregory XVI, a promotion which his old novice master Father Pignatelli had foretold when Angelo was summoned to be librarian at Milan. He continued his work in the Vatican and gave to the world the unpublished pages of three hundred and fifty ancient authors which he had discovered.
Father Hugo Hurter calls Francesco Zaccaria of the old Society the most industrious worker in the history of literature. This praise might well be applied to himself if it were only for his wonderful "Nomenclator literarius theologiæ catholicæ." It is a catalogue of the[865] names and works of all Catholic theological writers from the year 1564 up to the year 1894. Nor is it merely a list of names for it gives an epitome of the lives of the authors and an appreciation of their work and their relative merit in the special subject to which they devoted themselves; it thus covers the whole domain of scholastic, positive and moral theology, as well as of patrology, ecclesiastical history and the cognate sciences such as epigraphy, archæology and liturgy. It consists of five volumes with two closely printed columns on each page. The last column in the second volume is numbered 1846. After that come fifty-three pages of indexes and a single page of corrigenda in that volume alone. It is worth while noting that there are only six errors in all this bewildering mass of matter; there are, besides, three additions, not to the text, but to the index, from which the names of three writers were accidentally omitted.
So condensed is the letterpress that only a dash separates one subject from another. Nevertheless, thanks to the ingenious indexes, both of persons and subjects, the subject sought for can be found immediately. Finally, between the text and the indexes are two marvellous chronological charts. By means of the first, the student can follow year by year the growth of the various branches of theology and know the names of all the authors in each. The second chart takes the different countries of Europe — Italy, Spain, Portugal, France, Belgium, Germany, England, Poland and Hungary — and as you travel down the years in the succeeding centuries you can see what studies were most in favor in different parts of the world and the different stages of their history. Not only that, but a style of type, varying from a large black print, down to a very pale and small impression, gives you the relative prominence of every one of the[866] vast multitude of authors. Such a work will last to the end of time and never lose its value, and how Father Hurter, who was the beloved spiritual father of the University of Innsbruck, whose theological faculty he entered in 1858, and who, besides publishing his unusually attractive theology and editing fifty-eight volumes of the Fathers of the Church, could find time and strength to produce his encyclopedic "Nomenclator" is almost inconceivable.
In the year 1907, the scheme of a Catholic Encyclopedia was launched in New York. The editors chosen were Dr. Charles Herbermann, for more than fifty years professor of Latin and the most distinguished member of the College of the City of New York; Mgr. Thomas Shahan, the rector of the Catholic University at Washington, and later raised to the episcopal dignity; Dr. Edward A. Pace, professor of philosophy in the same university; Dr. Condé Benoist Pallen, a well-known Catholic publicist, and Father John J. Wynne of the Society of Jesus.
The scope of the work is unlike that of other Catholic encyclopedias. It is not exclusively ecclesiastical, for it records all that Catholics have done not only in behalf of charity or morals, but also in the intellectual, and artistic development of mankind. Hence, while covering the whole domain of dogmatic and moral theology, ecclesiastical history and liturgy, it has succeeded in giving its readers information on art, architecture, archæology, literature, history, travel, language, ethnology, etc., such as cannot be found in any other encyclopedia in the English language. Only the most eminent writers have been asked to contribute to it, and hence its articles can be cited as the most recent exposition of the matters discussed. It appeared with amazing rapidity, the whole series of sixteen volumes being completed in nine years. To it is[867] added an extra volume entitled "The Catholic Encyclopedia and its Makers," which consists of photographs and biographical sketches of all the contributors.
The encyclopedia has proved to be an immense boon to the Church in America. The chief credit of the publication is generally accorded to Father John Wynne, who is a native of New York. It was he who conceived it, secured the board of editors, and, as his distinguished associate, Bishop Shahan, declared with almost affectionate eagerness at a public session of the faculty and students of the ecclesiastical seminary of New York: "it was he who encouraged and sustained the editors by his buoyant optimism in the perilous stages of its elaboration." This information may be helpful abroad to show that the Society in America is doing something for the glory of God and the salvation of souls. The apostolic character of the work is further enhanced by the fact that funds are being established in various dioceses to enable each seminarian to become the personal owner of the entire set from the very first moment he begins his studies. The effect of such an arrangement on the ecclesiastical mind of the century is inestimable. It is also being placed by the Knights of Columbus and by rich Catholics in battleships and the United States' military posts, as well as in civic libraries and club houses.
The first catalogue of Jesuit writers was drawn up by Father Ribadeneira in 1602-1608. Schott and Alegambe continued the work in 1643, and Nathaniel Bacon or Southwell, or Sotwel, as he was called on the Continent, published a third in 1676. Nothing more, however, was done in that line by the old Society, and it was not until the twenty-first congregation, at which Father Roothaan presided, that a postulatum was presented asking for the resumption of this valuable work. Something prevented this from being done for[868] the time being, and it was not until 1853 that the work was undertaken by the two Belgians, Augustine and Aloys de Backer.
Up to 1861 a series of seven issues appeared, but as by that time the number of names had increased to ten thousand, a new arrangement had to be made, and in 1869 the work appeared in three large folios. In 1885, on the death of Augustine de Backer, Charles Sommervogel took up the work. Providentially he was well equipped for the task, for although he had been continually employed at other tasks, sometimes merely as a surveillant in a French college, he had contrived to publish in 1884 a "Dictionnaire des ouvrages anonymeset pseudonymes des religieux de la Compagnie de Jésus." He began by recasting all that his predecessors had done, and it was only after four years that he had published the first volume. Others, however, followed in quick succession, and in 1900 the ninth volume appeared. The tenth volume, an index, was unfinished at the time of his death, but has since been completed by Father Bliard. Besides his articles in the "Etudes," he had also put into press a "Table méthodique des Mémoires de Trévoux," in three volumes, a "Bibliotheca Mariana S. J." and a "Moniteur bibliographique de la Compagnie de Jésus." He had intended to publish a revised edition of Carayon's, "Bibliographie historique," but was prevented by death.
As far back as 1658, Pope Alexander VIII did not hesitate to declare that "no literary work had ever been undertaken that was more useful or more glorious" than the "Acta Sanctorum" of Father Bollandus and his associates, nor did the learned Protestants of those days refrain from extolling the scientific spirit in which the work was being conducted. The "Acta," which began in the middle of the seventeenth century and which is still going on, reads like a romance. The[869] account of it by De Smedt tells us how the first writers had only a garret for a library, and were forced to pile their books on the floor; how Cardinal Bellarmine denounced the work as chimerical; how the Carmelites were in a rage because Papebroch denied that Elias was the founder of their order; how the Spanish Inquisition denounced the work and condemned the thirty volumes as heretical, and how finally it reached its present status.
The Bollandists did not immediately feel the blow that struck the rest of the Society of Jesus in 1773. Indeed, the commissioners announced that the government was satisfied with the labors of the Bollandists and was disposed to exercise special consideration in their behalf. In 1778 they removed to the Abbey of Caudenberg in Brussels, and the writers received a small pension. In 1788 three new volumes were published. Meantime Joseph II had succeeded Maria Theresa, and the sky began to darken. On October 16, 1788, the government decided to stop the pension of the writers, and their books and manuscripts which the official inspectors denounced as "trash" were ordered to be sold. After a year, the Fathers made an offer to the Premonstratensian Abbot of Tongerloo to buy the books and manuscripts for what would be equivalent now to about $4,353; the money, however, was to be paid to the Austrian government and not to the owners of the library. Happily the writers found shelter in the monastery with their books and, though the Brabantine Revolution disturbed them for a time, they continued at their work unmolested until 1794, when they issued another volume.
It was fortunate that they had succeeded in putting that volume into print, for that very year the French invaded Belgium and both Premonstratensians and Bollandists were obliged to disperse. Some of the[870] treasures of the library were hidden in the houses of the peasants, and others were hastily piled into wagons and carried to Westphalia, with the only result that could be anticipated — the loss of an immense amount of most valuable material; a certain number of the books were returned to the abbey, and left there in the dust until 1825. As there was no hope, at that time, of the Bollandists ever being able to resume their work, the monks disposed of most of the library treasure at public auction, and, what was not sold, was given to the Holland government and incorporated in the library of the Hague. The manuscripts were transported to Brussels and deposited in the Burgundian Library. They are still there.
In 1836 a hagiographical society in France under the patronage of Guizot and several bishops proposed to take up the work of the Bollandists and an envoy was sent to purchase the documents from the Belgian government. The proposition evoked a patriotic storm in the little country, and a petition was made to the minister of the interior, de Theux, imploring him to lose no time in securing for his native land the honor of completing the work, and to entrust the task to the Jesuit Fathers, who had begun it and carried it on for two centuries. The result was that on January 29, 1837, the provincial of Belgium appointed four Fathers who were to live at St. Michel in Brussels. The government gave them an annual subsidy of six thousand francs, but this was withdrawn in 1868 by the Liberals and never restored, though the Catholics have been in control since 1884.
There are more than one hundred volumes to the credit of the writers up to the present time, sixty-five of which are huge folios. What they contain may be learned from the most competent of all authorities, Charles de Smedt, the Bollandist director, who wrote[871] the most complete and scientific account of the Bollandist collection for the Catholic Encyclopedia. It is sufficient to state that in the opinion of the most distinguished and capable scholars in the field, the work of the later Bollandists is in no wise inferior to the work of their illustrious predecessors of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
In reviewing a recent publication of a Bollandist work, the scholarly "American Historical Review" (July, 1920) has this to say: "It is to be hoped that a more widely diffused knowledge of what the Bollandists have been doing for human learning, historical and literary, may bring American aid to fill the gaps in their resources caused by the devastations of war. It is a pleasure to know that the Princeton University Press intends to issue an English translation of Father Delehaye's admirable book, which gives an account of the labors of the Bollandists from 1638 down to the present day."
It has been said that the Jesuits had a way of keeping their most brilliant members before the public eye while sending their inferior men to the missions to be eaten by the savages. That this is not an accepted opinion in America is evidenced by the publication of what are called the "Jesuit Relations," in seventy-two volumes, by a firm in Cleveland, Ohio, whose members had no affiliation with Catholics or Jesuits, and whose venture involved immense financial risks. "The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents" is the title of the work. The subsidiary title is "Travels and Explorations of Jesuit Missionaries in New France, 1610-1791. The Original French, Latin and Italian Texts, with English Translations and Notes, illustrated by Portraits, Maps and Facsimiles."
The editor is Reuben Gold Thwaites, Secretary of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin. In his[872] preface he says: "American historians from Shea and Parkman down have already made liberal use of the 'Relations,' and here and there antiquarians and historical societies have published fragmentary translations. The great body of the 'Relations' and their allied documents however have never been Englished; hence these interesting papers have never been accessible to the majority of historical students. The present edition offers to the public for the first time an English rendering side by side with the original.
"The authors of the journals which form the basis of the 'Relations' were for the most part men of trained intellect, acute observers, and practiced in the art of keeping records of their experiences. They had left the most highly civilized country of their times to plunge at once into the heart of the wilderness and attempt to win to the Christian Faith the fiercest savages known to history. To gain these savages it was first necessary to know them intimately, their speech, their habits, their manner of thought, their strong points and their weak. These first students of American Indian history were not only amply fitted for their task but none have since had better opportunity for its prosecution. They performed a great service to mankind in publishing their annals, which are for historian, geographer and ethnologist our best authorities.
"Many of the 'Relations' were written in Indian camps amid a chaos of distractions. Insects innumerable tormented the journalists; they were immersed in scenes of squalor and degradation, overcome by fatigue and lack of proper sustenance, often suffering from wounds and disease, maltreated in a hundred ways by hosts, who at times, might more properly be called jailers; and not seldom had savage superstition risen to such heights that to be seen making a memorandum[873] was certain to arouse the ferocious enmity of the band. It is not surprising that the composition of these journals is sometimes crude; the wonder is that they could be written at all. Nearly always the style is simple and earnest. Never does the narrator descend to self-glorification or dwell unnecessarily upon the details of his continual martyrdom. He never complains of his lot, but sets forth his experiences in matter of fact phrases.
"From these writings we gain a vivid picture of life in the primeval forests. Not only do these devoted missionaries — never in any field has been witnessed greater personal heroism than theirs — live and breathe before us in these 'Relations,' but we have in them our first competent account of the Red Indian when relatively uncontaminated by contact with Europeans. Few periods of history are so well illuminated as the French régime in North America. This we owe in a large measure to the existence of the Jesuit Relations."
"The existence of these Relations," to use Mr. Thwaites' expression, is due to the scholarly modern Jesuit, Father Félix Martin, the founder and first rector of St. Mary's College at Montreal, who in 1858 induced the Quebec government to reprint the old Cramoisy editions of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It was Martin who developed in Gilmary Shea, then a Jesuit scholastic in Montreal, the historical instinct; and gave to Parkman much if not all of the information that made that author famous, in spite of the bigotry or lack of comprehension that sometimes reveals itself in his pages. Martin's first publication consisted of three double columned, closely printed and bulky octavos in French. He never dreamed that the interest in the book would grow until the splendid edition of Thwaites in seventy-two volumes would signify to the scientific world the value of these docu[874]ments "written in canoes or in the depths of the forests," as Thwaites says, "a decade before the landing of the Plymouth Pilgrims."
While these "Relations" about the Canada missions were being published Father Le Gobien began to issue his "Lettres sur les progrès de la religion de la Chine," which ultimately developed into the well-known "Lettres édifiantes et curieuses" describing missionary enterprises all over the world. During the Suppression they were issued in twenty-six duo-decimo volumes. An Austrian Jesuit began in 1720 to translate some of these letters, entitling his work "Neue Welt Bott." It soon became independent of the "Letters" and appeared in five volumes folio. It is still being published.
A certain number of periodicals are published by the Society, the most important of which are the "Civiltà Cattolica," the "Etudes," the "Stimmen aus Maria-Laach" and the "Razón y Fe."
The "Civiltà" was begun in 1850 by express order of Pius IX. Its first editors were Fathers Curci, Bresciani, Liberatore, Taparelli, Oreglia, Piccirillo, and Pianciani, a staff which would insure the success of any publication. Its articles are of the most serious kind, dealing with questions of theology, philosophy, sociology and literature. Its first issue of 4,200 copies appeared at Naples; later it was published at Rome. In 1870 the staff was transferred to Naples, but returned in 1887 to Rome. It is published every fortnight, and at present has a circulation of over 12,000 copies. It is under the direct control of the Pope, and unlike other Society publications of the same kind it is not connected with any house or college. It has received the highest commendations from Pius IX and from Leo XIII.
[875] In 1856 the "Etudes" was begun by the Jesuits in France under the editorship of Daniel Gagarin and Godfroy. In character it closely resembles the "Civiltà." The troubles of 1876 caused its suspension for almost a year, but the various dispersions of the French provinces have not affected it, except perhaps in the extent of its circulation. It is published at Paris, but was at one time issued from Lyons. From a monthly it has developed into a fortnightly review in latter years.
The German Fathers have their monthly "Stimmen aus Maria-Laach," the first number of which appeared in 1865. The defense of the Syllabus called it into being. When the Kulturkampf drove the editors from Maria-Laach, they migrated to Tervuren in Belgium. There they remained until 1880, when they went to Blijenbeck in Holland. In 1910 we find them at Valkenburg, Holland, attached to the Scholasticate. The ability of the staff has placed the "Stimmen" on a very high plane as a periodical.
The monthly "Razón y Fe" was begun by the Spanish Fathers in 1901, and "Studies" by the Irish Jesuits in 1912. This latter, however, admits contributors who are not of the Society. The same may be said of the "Month" (London), the weekly "America" (New York), the "Irish Monthly" (Dublin) and a number of minor periodicals. There are also publications for private circulation, such as the "Woodstock Letters," the "Letters and Notices"; "Lettres Edifiantes" of various provinces of the Society, most of which are printed in the scholasticates, and convey information about the different works of the Society in different parts of the world. They are largely of the character of the ancient "Relations des Jésuites" of the old French Fathers and are of[876] great value as historical material. Finally the American "Messenger of the Sacred Heart" publishes a monthly edition of 350,000, besides millions of leaflets to promote the devotion. There are fifty-one editions of the "Messenger" published in thirty-five different languages.
The reason why the Society has not succeeded in producing since the Restoration any theologians like Suárez, Toletus and others, is the same that prevented Napoleon Bonaparte from winning back his empire when he was a prisoner on St. Helena. Conditions have changed. Suárez, de Lugo, Ripalda and their brilliant associates passed their lives in Catholic Spain which gloried in universities like Salamanca, Valladolid or Alcalá. There those great men wrote and taught; Bellarmine and Toletus labored in Rome and Lessius in Louvain; whereas the Jesuit theologians in our day have been not only debarred from the great universities but robbed of their libraries, sent adrift in the world and compelled to seek not for learned leisure but for a roof to shelter them. They were expelled from France in 1762, and were never allowed to open a school even for small boys until 1850. At present they are permitted to shed their blood on the battle field for their country from which they have been driven into exile. They were banished from Italy repeatedly, and have never secured a foothold in Germany since 1872; they do not exist in Portugal and any moment may see them expelled from Spain. In England and Ireland Catholics were not emancipated until 1829, and it is only grudgingly that the government allows Ireland to have a university which Catholics can safely frequent, and even there no chair of Catholic theology may be maintained with the ordinary revenues. In America everything is in a formative state and what money is available has to be[877] used for elementary instruction, both religious and secular, of the millions whom poverty and persecution have driven out of Europe. It is very doubtful if Suárez and his great associates would have written their splendid works in such surroundings.
As the eye travels over Hurter's carefully prepared chronological chart, it catches only an occasional gleam of the old glory, when the names of the Wiceburgenses, Zaccaria, Mai, Muzzarelli, Arévalo and Morcelli make their appearance in the late sixties of the nineteenth century. But those were the days of the French Revolution and of its subsequent upheavals. The Church itself was in the same straits between 1773 and 1860, and its number of great theologians of any kind is extremely small. Thus, abstracting from the Jesuits, we find in 1773 only Flórez, the Augustinian, who wrote ecclesiastical history; in 1782 the erudite Maronite Assemani, who is classed as a moralist; in 1787 St. Alphonsus Liguori; and in 1793 the Benedictine Gerbert, who is also a moralist. The Barnabite Gerdil appears under date of 1802 as an apologist, and from that year up to 1864 there is no one to whom Hurter accords distinction in any branch of divinity. Perhaps the reason is that the century was in the full triumph of its material civilization and that men derided and despised the dogmatic teachings of religion.
A study of Hurter's "Nomenclator" is instructive. In 1774, the year after the Suppression, there are only four publications by Jesuit authors; in 1775 there are nine; and then the number begins to grow smaller. In 1780 the figure rises to ten, and it is somewhat remarkable that in 1789 and 1790, the first years of the French Revolution, seventeen writers appear. The stream then dribbles along until 1814, the year of the Restoration, when we find only one book with the[878] letters S. J. after the name of its author. The next year there is none.
The Jesuit who illumines the darkness of that period is Thaddeus Nogarola, whom Hurter describes as "a member of the most noble family of Verona." He was born on 24 December, 1729. Consequently he was eighty-five years of age at the time of the Restoration. He wrote on sanctifying grace; and in 1800 he and another Jesuit had a fierce theological battle on the subject of attrition, in which he defended his position with excessive vehemence. In 1806 he had issued his great treatise against Gallicanism. His doughty antagonist re-entered the Society in 1816. He had expressed himself very vigorously on the subject of the Napoleonic oath in France and his books were prohibited in the Cisalpine Republic.
In 1816 four books were published; but the number continues small and 1823 is credited with none. In 1824, there were two publications, one of them by Arévalo, the eminent patrologist, who composed the hymns and lessons of the feast of Our Lady Help of Christians. It is a very sad list from 1826 to 1862, with its succession of ones and zeros. Only three names of any note appear: Kohlmann in 1836, Loriquet in 1845, and de Ravignan in 1858. That period of almost forty years had seen the revolutions of 1830 and 1848, and there was no stability for any Jesuit establishment. Finally, however, in 1862 came Pianciani, Taparelli and Bresciani; and in 1865 and 1866 Tongiorgi and Gury, respectively. It was only then that the Society was able to begin its theological work after its redintegration. The space is not great between 1862 and the present time, but since then there have been Perrone and the great Bollandist and theologian, Victor de Buck, who appeared in 1876; Edmund O'Reilly in 1878; Ballerini and Patrizi in[879] 1881; Kleutgen in 1883; and in 1886 Cardinals Franzelin and Mazzella.
During that period there was no end of confiscations and expulsions, even of those who were not engaged in educational work. Thus the German Jesuits acquired the old Benedictine Monastery of Maria-Laach in 1863 on the southwest bank of a fine lake near Andernach in the Rhineland. There they organized a course of studies for the scholastics as well as a college of writers. Among them were the learned Schneeman, Riess and others who began the great work of the church Councils and the "Philosophia Lacensis," besides publishing the Jesuit "Stimmen." How long were they there? Only ten years. The Kulturkampf banished them from their native land and they had to continue their labors in exile. This has been the story of the Society in almost every European country and in the Spanish Republics of South America and Mexico. In spite of all this, however, Hurter's chart shows that from 1773 to 1894 there have been no less than four hundred Jesuit theologians who published works in defense of the doctrines of the Church, and some of them have achieved prominence.
In philosophy, for instance, there was Taparelli who died in 1863. He was the first rector of the Roman College, when it was given back to the Society by Leo XII. He taught philosophy for fifteen years at Palermo, and in 1840 issued his great work which he called "A Theoretical Essay on Natural Rights from an historical standpoint." It reached the seventh edition in 1883 and was translated into French and German. Next in importance is his "Esame critico degli ordini rappresentativi nella società moderna." Besides his striking monographs on "Nationality," "Sovereignty of the People," "The Grounds of War,"[880] he wrote a great number of articles in the "Civiltà" on matters of political economy and social rights. His first great work was in a way the beginning of modern sociology. Palmieri issued his "Institutiones Philosophiæ" in 1874, and at the very outset won the reputation of a great thinker, even from those who were at variance with his conclusions and mode of thought.
In the same branch Liberatore was for a long time preëminent, and his "Institutiones" and "Composito humano" went through eleven editions. Cornoldi's "Filosofia scolastica specolativa" was also a notable production. Lehmen's "Lehrbuch" reached the third edition before his death in 1910. Boedder is well-known to English speaking people because of his many works written during his professorship at St. Beuno's in Wales. Cathrein's "Socialism" has been translated into nine different languages, and his "Moral Philosophy" has enjoyed great popularity. Pesch's position is established; his last work, "Christliche Lebens-philosophie," reached its fourth edition within four years. Kleutgen who is perhaps the best known of these German Jesuits, was called by Leo XIII "the prince of philosophers" and is regarded as the restorer of Catholic philosophy throughout Germany. In Spain, Father Cuevas has written a "Cursus completus philosophiæ" and a "History of Philosophy." Mendive's "Text-book of Philosophy" in Spanish is used in several universities, but the writer who dominated all the rest in that country is admittedly Urráburu, who died prematurely in 1904. His "Cursus philosophiæ scholasticæ," brings up the memory of the famous old philosophers of earlier ages.
It is not only edifying but inspiring to hear that the Venerable Father de Clorivière occupied himself while in prison in the Temple at Paris during the Revolution[881] in writing commentaries on the Sacred Scriptures. He was over seventy years of age and was expecting to be summoned to the guillotine at any moment, but he had plenty of time to write, for his imprisonment lasted five years. Sommervogel credits him with commentaries on "The Canticle of Canticles," "The Epistles of St. Peter," "The Discourse at the Last Supper," "The Animals of Ezechiel," "The Two Seraphim of Isaias," besides Constitutions for the religious orders he had founded, lives of the saints, novenas, and religious poems. He also translated "Paradise Lost" into French. Evidently the commentary written in a prison cell cannot have measured up to the scientific exegesis of the present day, but perhaps for that reason it reached the soul more readily. In any case, the Scriptural students of the modern Society made an excellent start with a saint and a virtual martyr.
Francis Xavier Patrizi distinguished himself as an exegete. He was one of the first to enter the Society after the Restoration, and was so esteemed for his virtue and ability that he came very near being elected General of the Society. His first publication on "The Interpretation of the Holy Scriptures" appeared in 1844. He translated the Psalms word for word from the Hebrew. His works are packed with erudition, of scrupulous accuracy in their citations, and of most sedulous care in defending the Sacred Text against the Protestants of the early days of the nineteenth century. The "Cursus Scripturæ" of the Fathers of Maria-Laach: Cornely, Knabenbauer, Hummelauer, and others, is a monument of erudition and labor and is without doubt the most splendid triumph of exegesis in the present century.
In 1901, the Sovereign Pontiff appointed and approved a Biblical Commission for the proper interpretation and[882] defense of Holy Scripture. It consists of five cardinals and forty-three consultors. Among the distinguished men chosen for this work we find Fathers Cornely, Delattre, Gismondi, von Hummelauer, Méchineau, and Prat. One of the duties with which the commission was charged was the establishment of a special institute for the prosecution of higher Biblical Studies. In 1910 Father Fonck, its first rector, began the series of public conferences which was one of the assigned works of the Institute. It publishes the "Biblical Annals." The French Fathers in Syria are very valuable adjuncts to this institute, because of their knowledge of Oriental languages. One of them, Father Lammens, was for years the editor of "Bachir," an Arabic periodical.
When Father John Carroll went to England to be consecrated Bishop of Baltimore, he probably met at Lulworth Castle, where the ceremony took place, a French Jesuit of the old Society who had found shelter with the Weld family during the Revolution and was acting as their chaplain. He was Father Grou, a man of saintly life. It was while he was in England that he wrote "La Science de crucifix" the "Caractère de la vraie dévotion," "Maximes spirituelles," "Méditation sur l'amour de Dieu," "L'intérieur de Jésus et de Marie," "Manuel des âmes intérieures," "Le livre du jeune homme." These works were frequently reprinted and translated.
It is very interesting to find that, before the expulsion from France, Father Grou had been an ardent student of Plato and had even published eight books about the great philosopher. He also wrote an answer to La Chalotais' attack on the Society. Sommervogel mentions another book written by him in conjunction with Father du Rocher. It is entitled "Temps Fabuleux," an historical and dogmatic treatise on the true religion.
[883] Among the other noted ascetical writers were Vigitello, author of "La Sapienza del cristiano," Mislei, who wrote "Grandezze di Gesù Cristo" and "Gesù Cristo e il Cristiano," Hillegeer, Dufau, Verbeke, Vercruysse, de Doss, Petit, Meschler, Schneider and Chaignon, whose "Nouveau cours de méditations sacerdotales" has gone through numberless editions; Watrigant has made extensive studies on the "Exercises;" Ramière's "Apostolat de la Prière" made the circuit of the world and gave the first impulse to the League of the Sacred Heart. Coleridge's "Life of Our Lord," consisting of thirty volumes, is a mine of thought and especially valuable for directors of religious communities.
In 1874 Father Camillo Tarquini was raised to the cardinalate for his ability as a canonist. His dissertation on the Regium placet exequatur made him an international celebrity. With him high in the ranks of canonists are Father General Wernz, Laurentius, Hilgers, Beringer, Oswald, Sanguinetti, Ojetti, Vermeersch, and the present Assistant General Father Fine.
Stephen Anthony Morcelli, who is eminent as a historian and is regarded as the founder of epigraphy, was born in Trent, in the year 1737. He made his studies in the Roman College, and there founded an academy of archæology. At the Suppression he became the librarian of Cardinal Albani. He re-entered the restored Society. He was then eighty-four years of age. He had no superior as a Latin stylist. His "Calendar of the Church of Constantinople," covering a thousand years, his "Readings of the Four Gospels" according to various codices, and his notes on "Africa Christiana" are of great value.
Possibly the Portuguese Francis Macedo might be admitted to this list of famous authors. It is true[884] that he left the Society but as he had been a member for twenty-eight years it deserves some credit for the cultivation of his remarkable abilities. Maynard calls him the prodigy of his age. Thus at Venice in 1667 Macedo held a public disputation on nearly every branch of human knowledge, especially the Bible, theology, patrology, history, literature and poetry. In his quaint and extravagant style he called this display the literary roarings of the Lion of St. Mark. It had been prepared in eight days. On account of his success, Venice gave him the freedom of the city and the professorship of moral philosophy at the University of Padua. In his "Myrothecium morale" he tells us that he has pronounced three hundred and fifty panegyrics, sixty Latin harangues, thirty-two funeral orations, and had composed one hundred and twenty-three elegies, one hundred and fifteen epitaphs, two hundred and twelve dedicatory epistles, two thousand and six hundred heroic poems, one hundred and ten odes, four Latin comedies, two tragedies and satires in Spanish, besides a number of treatises on theology such as "The Doctrines of St. Thomas and Scotus," "Positive theology for the refutation of heretics," "The Keys of Peter," "The Pontifical Authority," "Medulla of Ecclesiastical History," and the "Refutation of Jansenism." The Society made him great but failed to teach him humility.
In most theological libraries which are even moderately equipped one sees long lines of books on which the name of Muzzarelli appears. They are of different kinds; ascetical, devotional, educational, philosophical and theological, and many of them have been translated into various languages. He belonged to the old Society, entering it only four years before the suppression. He was then twenty-four years of age. As he was of a noble family of Ferrara, he held[885] a benefice in his native city at the time of his banishment, and a little later, the Duke of Parma made him rector of the College of Nobles. Pius VII called him to Rome and made him theologian of the Penitentiaria, which meant that he was the Pope's theologian. When the Society was re-established in Naples, he asked permission to join his brethren there, but the Pope refused. It was just as well, for Napoleon's troops soon closed the establishment. When Pius VII was carried off a prisoner in 1809, Muzzarelli was also deported. He never returned to Rome, but died in Paris one year before the Restoration of the Society. He was not however forgotten in his native city, which regarded him as one of its glories. Among his works were several of an ascetic character such as "The Sacred Heart," "The Month of Mary," and also a "Life of St. Francis Hieronymo."
There were also a few modern Jesuits who were conspicuous in moral theology. First, in point of time was Jean-Pierre Gury, who was born in Mailleroncourt on January 23, 1801. He taught theology for thirty-five years at Annecy and at the Roman College. He died on April 18, 1866. His work was adopted as a text-book in a number of seminaries, because of its brevity, honesty and solidity. It is true that his brevity impaired his accuracy at times, as well as the scientific presentation of questions, but his successors such as Seitz, Cercia, Melandri and Ballerini filled up the gaps by the help of the decisions of the Congregations and the more recent pronouncements of the Holy See. Besides his "Moral Theology" he also published his "Casus conscientiæ." That made him the typical "Jesuit Casuist," and drew on him all the traditional hatred of Protestant polemicists, especially in Germany. His work did much to extirpate what was left of Jansenism in Europe.
[886] Antonio Ballerini held the chair of moral theology in the Roman College from 1856 until his death in 1881. In the cautious words of Hurter he was "almost the prince of moralists of our times." Besides his "Principi della scuola Rosminiana" he wrote his remarkable "Sylloge monumentorum ad mysterium Immaculatæ Conceptionis illustrandum," and in 1863 issued his "De morali systemate S. Alphonsi M. de Ligorio." In 1866 appeared his "Compendium theologiæ moralis." The style was somewhat acrid, and sharp, especially in the controversy it provoked with the out-and-out defenders of St. Alphonsus. His annotations were a mine of erudition and revealed at the same time a very unusual intellectual sagacity and correctness of judgment. His book, on the whole, exercised a great influence in promoting solid theological study; and its denunciation of the frivolous reasons on which many opinions were based and the unreliableness of many quotations decided the tone of subsequent works by other authors. Following Ballerini were other Jesuits such as Lehmkuhl, Sabbetti, Noldin, Genicot and Palmieri, who won fame as moralists.
Palmieri was not only a theologian, a moralist and a philosopher, but an exegete. He taught Scripture and the Oriental languages in Maastricht for seven years, and in 1886, published a Commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians and another on the historicity of the Book of Judith. He was among the first to sound the alarm about Loisy's heterodoxy and he wrote several books against the Modernistic errors. His reputation rests chiefly on his dogmatic theology; every two years, from 1902, he issued treatises that immediately attracted attention for their brilliant originality and exhaustive learning. He died in Rome on May 29, 1909. "This superlatively sagacious man," says Hurter, "blended Gury and the super-[887]abundant commentaries of Ballerini into one continuous text, injecting, of course, his own personal views into his seven great volumes, with the result that it is a positive pleasure to read him." The wonderful theological acumen manifested in this, as in his other works apparently restored him to favor with Leo XIII, who disliked some of his philosophical speculations. Hence, when Father Steinhüber was made cardinal, Palmieri was appointed to succeed him as theologian of the Penitentiaria.
Besides all this, Palmieri gave a delightful revelation of his affectionate character as a devoted son, when he wrote, at the request of his mother, a Commentary of Dante. Ojetti says that "he brought all the profundity of his philosophy and theology to his task and produced a work which astonished those who were able to appreciate the depth of the thought and the scientific erudition employed in the exposition of each individual canto."
The great Perrone was born in Chieri in 1794 and entered the Society on December 14, 1815, one of the first novices after the Re-establishment. He began his career as professor of dogma at Orvieto, and from thence was transferred to Rome, where he remained until the outbreak of the Revolution in 1848. After a three years' stay in England he resumed his place at the Roman College. He was consultor of various congregations, was conspicuous as the antagonist of Hermes, and also in the discussion that ended in the dogmatic definition of the Immaculate Conception. His "Prælectiones theologiæ" in nine volumes reached its thirty-fourth edition, while its "Compendium" saw fifty-seven.
Carlo Passaglia is another great theological luminary. He entered the Society in 1827, and when scarcely thirty years old was teaching at the Sapienza and[888] was prefect of studies at the Collegium Germanicum. The Gregorian University then claimed him, and, in 1850, he took a leading part in preparing the definition of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception on which he wrote three large volumes. Other great works are to his credit, but his historico-linguistic method met with criticism. It was said he substituted grammar for dogma. Passaglia left the Society, however, in 1859. Pius IX gave him a chair in the Sapienza; there he came in contact with an agent of Cavour and under his influence wrote his book "Pro causa italica". It was placed on the "Index," and Passaglia fled to Turin, where he taught moral philosophy until his death and edited a weekly called "Il Medicatore," which welcomed articles from discontented priests. He also published a daily paper called "La Pace," as well as "Il Gerdil," a theological review. He was suspended from his priestly functions, dressed as a layman, and was temerarious enough to criticise the Syllabus. The Bishop of Mondovi tried to reconcile him with the Church, but he did not retract until a few months before his death. Hurter calls him "an illustrious professor of dogma who was carried away by politics, left the Society, assailed the Temporal Power, and by his sad defection cast a stain on his former glory. His quotations from the Fathers are too diffuse, and although his work on the Immaculate Conception displays immense erudition it crushes the reader by its bulk."
Carlo Maria Curci also brought grief to his associates in those days. He had acquired great fame for his defense of the rights of the Pope against the Liberal politicians of the Peninsula, but unfortunately, soon after, became a Liberal himself and left the Society. He returned again, however, shortly before his death which occurred on June 19, 1891. He was one of[889] the first contributors to the "Civiltà" and was, besides, a remarkable orator. His "Nature and Grace," "Christian Marriage," "Lessons from the two books of the Machabees and the Four Gospels," and "Joseph in Egypt" were the most notable of his writings.
Josef Wilhelm Karl Kleutgen was a Westphalian. He entered the Society on April 28, 1834, at Brieg; to avoid difficulties with the German Government he became a naturalized Swiss, and for some time went by the name of Peters. In 1843 he was professor of sacred eloquence in the Collegium Germanicum, and subsequently was named substitute to the Secretary of Father General, consultor of the Congregation of the Index, and collaborator in the preparation of the Constitution "De fide catholica" of the Vatican Council. He wrote the first draft of Pope Leo's Encyclical "Æterni Patris" on the revival of Scholastic theology and philosophy. His knowledge of the writings of the Angelic Doctor was so great that he was called Thomas redivivus. His first work "Theologie der Vorzeit" and his "Philosophie der Vorzeit" against Hermes, Hirscher, and Günther were declared to be epoch-making. The writing of these books coincided with a remarkable event in his life, namely suspension from his priestly office for his imprudence in allowing a community of nuns under his direction to honor as a saint one of their deceased members. He went into seclusion consequently but at the opening of the Vatican Council he was recalled by Pius IX to take part in it. All his works excel in solidity of doctrine, accuracy and brilliancy of exposition and nobility of style.
Johann Franzelin was a Tyrolese. He entered the Society on 27 July, 1834, but passed most of his life outside of his country. He studied theology in Rome, and became such an adept in Greek and Hebrew that[890] he occupied the chair when the professor was ill. He had to leave the city in the troublous times of 1848, but on his return he gave public lectures in the Roman College on Oriental languages. In 1857 he began his career as professor of dogma and his immense erudition caused him to be called for in many of the Roman congregations. In 1876 Pius IX created him cardinal. His theological works are known throughout the Church for their solidity, erudition and scrupulous accuracy. His dignity made no change in his simple and laborious life. He continued until the end of his days to wear poor garments, occupied two small rooms in the Novitiate of Sant' Andrea, rose at four every morning and spent the time until seven in devotional exercises. He kept up his penitential practises till death came on 11 December, 1886.
[891]
CHAPTER XXIX
THE SOVEREIGN PONTIFFS AND THE SOCIETY
Devotion, Trust and Affection of each Pope of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries manifested in their Official and Personal Relations with the Society.The restored Society, like the old, has been the recipient of many favors from the Sovereign Pontiffs. Pius VI would have immediately undone the work of Clement XIV, had it been at all possible; and Pius VII faced the wrath of all the kings and statesmen of Europe by issuing the Bull that put back the Society in the place it had previously occupied in the Church.
The election of Leo XII, who succeeded Pius VII on September 28, 1823, had, at first, thrown consternation among the members of the Order, because of his previous attitude as Cardinal della Genga. He had been associated with its enemies and had uttered very harsh words about the Society, but it soon became evident that it was all due to the impression which the plotters had given him that they were fighting against the influence of Paccanarism in certain members of the congregation. When he became Pope, he understood better the facts of the case and became one of the warmest friends the Society ever had.
On May 7, 1824, he recalled the Fathers to the Roman College and gave them a yearly revenue of 12,000 scudi, besides restoring to them the Church of St. Ignatius, the Caravita Oratory, the museum, the library, the observatory, etc. He entrusted to them the direction of the College of Nobles; assigned to them the Villa of Tivoli; set apart new buildings for the Collegium Germanicum, and on July 4, 1826, he[892] established them in the College of Spoleto, which he had founded for the teaching of humanities, philosophy, civil and canon law, theology and holy Scripture; for all of which he had provided ample revenues.
In the same year he issued the celebrated Bull "Plura inter," restoring the ancient privileges of the Society and adding new ones. This list of spiritual favors fills seven complete columns. "Everyone is aware," he said in the Bull, "how many and how great were the services performed by this Society, which was the fruitful mother of men who were conspicuous for their piety and learning. From it we expect still more in the future, seeing that it is extending its branches so widely even before it has taken new root. For not only in Rome but in Transalpine countries and in the remotest regions of the world, it is affectionately received, because it leaves nothing undone to train youth in piety and the liberal arts, in order to make them the future ornaments of their respective countries."
On July 27, he increased the revenues of the College of Beneventum, and on October 11, of the same year, he told the people of Faenza that he could not, just then, give them a Jesuit College because of the lack of funds, but that he would meet their wishes as soon as possible. The very month before his death, he sent encouraging words to the Fathers in England, who were harassed by all sorts of calumnious accusations, and told the Bishop of Thespia that "the English scholastics could be ordained sub titulo paupertatis, and had a right to the same privileges as other religious orders in England." Finally, he would have appointed Father Kohlmann Bishop of New York and Father Kenny to the See of Dromore, had not the General persuaded him not to do so. The same thing occurred in the case of Father Pallavicini who was[893] named for the See of Reggio in Calabria. Pope Leo XII died on February 10, 1829, a few days after the demise of Father Fortis, who was his affectionate and intimate friend.
The name of his successor, Pius VIII, was Francis Xavier Castiglione — a good omen for the brethren of the great Apostle. Indeed, brief though his pontificate was, he always made it clear that the Society was very dear to him. "I have always let it be known," he said to the Fathers who had presented themselves to greet him at his accession, "and I shall avail myself of every occasion to declare that I love the Society of Jesus. From my earliest childhood that feeling was deep in my heart, and I have always profoundly venerated St. Ignatius and St. Francis Xavier. I bear, all unworthy as I am, the name of Xavier. I have been taught by the most distinguished Jesuits, and I know how much good they have done for the Church, so that as the Church cannot be separated from the Pope, he cannot be separated from the Society. These are sad days and there never was witnessed greater audacity and hate. Impiety has never employed greater cunning against the truth. Perhaps very soon other grievous wounds will be inflicted on the Church; but together we shall fight the enemies of God. Return to your provinces, therefore, and arouse in your brethren the same ardor that is in your hearts. Preach and teach obedience and integrity of life in your schools, in your pulpits, by voice and pen, and with all your soul. May God second your efforts. Meantime keep always unshaken in the assurance that I shall always be, before all, your most tender and devoted Father."
On December 2, 1829, accompanied by Cardinals Somaglia and Odescalchi he went to the Gesù, and after praying at the altar of St. Francis Xavier,[894] published the beatification of Alphonsus Liguori, the founder of the Redemptorist Order. He lavished favors on the Germanico-Hungarico and the College of Nobles; and when Charles Augustus von Reisach, a student of the Collegium Germanicum who was very young at the time, was named rector of the Propaganda, the Pope said to those who referred to it: "Never mind; he is young but he has studied in the best of schools and every one praises him for the maturity of his character, his irreproachable life and his fitness for the office."
When this devoted friend of the Society died, Cardinal Cappellari, the learned Camaldolese monk, ascended the pontifical throne and took the name Gregory XVI. Fifteen days afterwards all Italy was in the throes of Revolution. The Carbonari were in control, and as usual the Society felt the first blow. On February 17th, at the same hour, the colleges of Spoleto, Fano, Modena, Reggio, Forlì and Ferrara were attacked and the masters and pupils thrown out in the street. A decree of banishment was issued, but the people arose in their wrath, suppressed the insurrection and the Fathers were re-instated.
When peace was restored, the Pope gave a notable illustration of his esteem for the Society. He summoned all the religious of the various orders in Rome to the Gesù to make the Spiritual Exercises. A short time afterwards, at the instance of the Propaganda, he entrusted to it the administration of several colleges and formulated the concessions in the most eulogistic of terms, declaring among other things that a long and happy experience from the very beginning of the Institute until the present time, and in divers parts of the world, had shown the Holy See the incontestable aptitude of the Fathers for directing both clerical and secular schools. The same convic[895]tion, he said later, also prompted him to give them the Illyrian College.
The cholera which was sweeping over Europe finally reached Rome. The Pope had already established ambulances and hospitals in various parts of the city, and his appeal to the religious sentiments of the people prevented the frightful orgies which had disgraced London, Madrid and Paris when similarly afflicted. Cardinal Odescalchi, soon to be a Jesuit, was especially conspicuous in tranquillizing the populace, and a solemn ceremony in which the entire city participated is especially worthy of note, since it was intended by the Sovereign Pontiff to be an official announcement that while the pestilence lasted, the Jesuit Fathers were to be the principal channel of the Papal charities. The miraculous picture of the Blessed Virgin was carried in procession from St. Mary Major's to the Gesù and, in spite of the stifling heat, the Pope himself, surrounded by his cardinals, the clergy and the principal civil officials, accompanied the picture through the kneeling multitudes in the streets, and placed it on the altar in the Jesuit church, which thus became the prayer centre for the city while the pestilence lasted.
On August 23, 1837, it struck the city at the same moment in several places. Two princesses were its first victims, but the Pope in person went wherever the harvest of death was greatest, and his example inspired every one to emulate his devotion. Naturally members of the Society did their duty in those terrible days when 9,372 people were attacked by the disease and more than 5,000 perished. By the month of October the plague had ceased.
Cardinal Odescalchi, who had won the affection of the people of Rome by his heroic devotion to them at this crisis, astounded them in the following year[896] by the renunciation of the exalted dignities which he enjoyed in the Church and in the State, for he was a prince — in order to assume the humble garb and subject himself to the obedience of the Society of Jesus. The Pope and the cardinals endeavored to dissuade him from taking the step, pleading the interests of the Church, but he persisted, and on the day of his admission, December 8, 1838, he wrote to Father Roothaan to say that he could not describe the happiness that he felt, and he requested the General to deal with him as he would with the humblest of his subjects. He was then fifty-two years old. He died at Modena, on August 17, 1841, and had thus been able as one of its sons to celebrate the third centenary of the Society, which occurred in 1840. There was little if any public declaration, however, of this anniversary, for Father Roothaan had sent a reminder to all the provinces that the dangers of the time made it advisable to keep all manifestations of happiness and of gratitude to God within the limits of the domestic circle.
In 1836 an imperial edict in answer to a popular demand permitted the Jesuits to establish schools anywhere in the limits of the Austrian empire and to follow their own methods of teaching independently of university control. The emperor and empress honored by their presence the first college opened in Verona. Other cities of Italy invited the Fathers to open schools, and Metternich, who is sometimes cited as their enemy, allowed them to install themselves at Venice, where a remnant of antagonism had remained, ever since the time of Paolo Sarpi; but by St. Ignatius Day in 1844 that had all vanished and the patriarch, the doge, the nobility, the clergy and the people united in giving the Fathers a cordial welcome.
In the Island of Malta, which had become a British possession, the inhabitants sent a letter of thanks to[897] Lord Stanley, the secretary of State, for having granted them a college of the Society. The letter had 4,000 signatures. The Two Sicilies welcomed the Society in 1804 and restored to it the Professed house, along with the Collegium Maximum and the old churches; other establishments were begun elsewhere in the kingdom. After the Jesuits had been expelled by the Carbonari in 1820 the usual reaction occurred and they were soon back at their posts. The cholera of 1837 gave them a new hold on the affection of the people, and for the moment their position in the kingdom appeared to be absolutely secure.
During the fifteen years of his pontificate, Gregory XVI published no less than fifteen rescripts in favor of the Society. On March 30, 1843, he empowered Georgetown College in Washington to confer philosophical and theological degrees. In the following year he restored the Illyrian College, which Gregory XIII had established at Loreto, and gave it to the Society together with the Villa Leonaria. At the request of Cardinal Franzoni, the prefect of the Propaganda, he turned over the Urban College to the Society, and in the rescript announcing the transfer he said: "Whereas the Congregation of the Propaganda was convinced that the instruction of the young clerics who are to be sent to foreign parts to spread the light of the Gospel and to cultivate the vineyard of the Lord could not be better trained for such a task than by those religious who make it the special work of their Institute to form youth in piety, literature and science, and who always strive intensely in whatever they undertake to promote the greater glory of God; and whereas, from the very establishment of the Society of Jesus, the Church has had daily experience of the aptitude of the Fathers of the Society in the education of youth both in secular and clerical pursuits in all[898] parts of the world; and whereas the testimony which even the enemies of the Holy See and of the Church are compelled by the evidence of things to pay to the Society of Jesus for the excellent education which the youth of their colleges receive, we do therefore assent most willingly to the petition of the lord cardinal of the Congregation of the Propaganda."
On October 11, 1838, a chair of canon law was erected in the Roman College. In the following year on March 5, the Pontiff gave the Society the College of Fermo, and on September 28, the College of Camerino. In brief, there was no end of the spiritual favors which Gregory XVI bestowed on the Society through its General, Father Roothaan, whom he honored with his most intimate friendship.
Pius IX succeeded Gregory XVI, and although he greatly esteemed Rosmini, who was attacked for his philosophical views by the Jesuits, chiefly by Melia, Passaglia, Rozaven and Ballerini, that did not affect the great Pontiff's affection for the Society. Hence when the procurators at their meeting of 1847 presented themselves to His Holiness to protest against the charge that they were averse to his governmental policies, he assured them that he was well aware of the calumnious nature of the accusation. He repeated the same words in 1853 to the electors of the twenty-second general congregation, and in 1860, when Garibaldi expelled the Jesuits from the Two Sicilies, Pope Pius not only welcomed the refugees to Rome, but, when they arrived, went in person to console them. "Let us suffer with equanimity," he said, "whatever God wishes. Persecution always brings courage to Catholics. What you have suffered is passed. What is to come who knows? It is splendid," he said as he withdrew, "to see that even when you are scourged you do not cease to work."
[899] Not only did he comfort them verbally, but he issued as many as one hundred and thirty-two briefs and Bulls, in each of which some favor was conferred on the Society. He beatified seventy-seven Jesuits and canonized three of them. He gave the College of Tephernatum to the Society and endowed it richly. In 1850 he ordered Father General, who was hesitating because of the difficulty of the work, to establish the "Civiltà Cattolica." In 1851 he built and endowed a college at Valiterno, and gave them another at Sinigaglia. He entrusted to them the Collegium Pio-Latinum Americanum, a confidence in their ability which was reaffirmed in 1908 by Pius X when he said: "For fifty years this college has been of singular advantage to the Church by forming a learned body of holy bishops and distinguished ecclesiastics."
As for Leo XIII, he was during his entire life intimately associated with the Society. "You Jesuits have enjoyed the great privilege," he once said to a Father of the Roman Province, "of having had saints for Generals. I knew Father Fortis; he was a saint. I knew Father Roothaan intimately; he was a saint. I was long acquainted with Father Beckx; he was a saint. And now you have Father Anderledy."
On February 25, 1881, he gave to the college at Beirut in Syria the power of conferring degrees in philosophy and theology. Four years later when there was question of a new edition of the third volume of the Institute, and Father Anderledy had asked His Holiness to re-affirm the ancient privileges of the Society, Leo XIII replied with the Brief "Dolemus inter," which is regarded by the Society as one of its great treasures. After expressing his sorrow for the persecution which it was just then suffering in France, the Pope says: "In order that our will with regard to the Society of Jesus may be more thoroughly under[900]stood, we hereby declare that each and every Apostolic letter which concerns the establishment, the institution and confirmation of the Society of Jesus and which has been published by our predecessors, the Roman Pontiffs, beginning with Paul III of happy memory, up to our own time either by briefs or Bulls, and whatever is contained in them or follows from them and which either directly or by participation with other religious orders has been granted to the Society and has not been abrogated or revoked in whole or in part by the Council of Trent and other Constitutions of the Apostolic See, namely, its privileges, immunities, exemptions and indults, we hereby confirm by these letters, and fortify them by the strength of our Apostolic authority and once more concede.... Let these letters be a witness of the love which we have always cherished and still cherish for the illustrious Society of Jesus which has been most devoted to Our Predecessors and to Us; which has been the fruitful mother of men who are distinguished for their holiness and wisdom, and the promoter of sound and solid doctrine, and which, although it suffered grievous persecution for justice sake, has never ceased to labor with a cheerful and unconquerable courage in cultivating the vineyard of the Lord. Let this well-deserving Society of Jesus, therefore, which was commended by the Council of Trent itself and whose accumulated glory has been proclaimed by Our Predecessors, continue in spite of the multiplied attacks of perverse men against the Church of Jesus Christ to follow its Institute in its fight for the greater glory of God and the salvation of souls. Let the Society continue in its efforts to bring to pagan nations and to heretics the light of truth, to imbue the youth of our times with virtue and learning, and to inculcate the teachings of the Angelical doctor in our schools of philosophy and[901] theology. Meantime, embracing this Society of Jesus, which is most beloved by Us, We impart to its Father General and his vicar and to all and each of its members our Apostolic benediction."
On the occasion of his golden jubilee in 1888, he showed his esteem for the Society by canonizing Peter Claver, and when the Fathers went to express their gratitude for this mark of affection, he replied that the Society had always been dear to the Sovereign Pontiffs, considering it as they did to be a bulwark of religion, and a most valiant legion that was always ready to undertake the greatest labors for the Church and the salvation of souls. To himself personally it had always been very dear. He had shown this affection as soon as he was made Pope, by making a cardinal of Father Mazzella, whose virtue and doctrine he held in the highest esteem, and by employing Cardinal Franzelin as long as he lived in the most important and most secret negotiations. Neither of whom ever waited for the expression of his wish. A mere suggestion sufficed. He then began to speak of his boyhood in the College of Viterbo, where he had learned to love the Jesuit teachers, and he went on to say that his affection had increased in the Roman College under such eminent masters as Taparelli, Manera, Perrone, Caraffa and others whom he named. He spoke enthusiastically of Father Roothaan, and then reverting to Blessed John Berchmans whom he had canonized, he told how his devotion to the boy saint began in his early college days of Viterbo.
In 1896 he showed his approval of the Society's theology by giving it the Institutum Leoninum at Anagni, and in the Motu proprio which he issued on that occasion, he said: "To the glory which the Society acquired even in its earliest days among learned men, by its scientific achievements and the[902] excellent work it accomplished in doctrinal matters, must be added the art which is so full of cleverness and initiative of instilling knowledge and piety in the hearts of their scholars. Such has been their reputation throughout their history, and we recall with pleasure that we have had the opportunity of studying under the most distinguished Jesuits. Hence, as soon as by the Providence of God we were called to the Supreme Pontificate, we asked more than once that young men, especially those who were to consecrate themselves to the Church, should be trained by the members of the Society, both in our own city and in distant countries of the world. We recall especially in this connection their work among the Basilians of Galicia and in the Xaverian Seminary which we established at Kandy in the East Indies. Hence, wishing to inaugurate an educational institution in our native city of Anagni, we cast our eyes upon the members of the Society and in neither case have we been disappointed."
The mention of the Ruthenian Basilians refers to an extremely delicate work entrusted to the Jesuits. Something had gone wrong in the Basilian province of Ruthenia, and at the request of the bishops and by command of the Pope, a number of Galician Jesuits took up their abode in the monastery of that ancient and venerable Order, and after twelve years of labor restored its former fervor. One scarcely knows which deserves greater commendation: the prudence and skill of those who undertook the difficult task or the humility and submission of those who were the objects of it. When the end had been attained, the Jesuits asked to be relieved of the burden of direction and government, and far from leaving any trace of resentment behind them, it was solemnly declared by a general congregation of the Basilian monks that the[903] link of affection which had been established between the two orders was to endure forever. The second apostolic work alluded to by the Pope in this Brief of 1897, was the Pontifical Seminary for all India which he had built on the Island of Ceylon and entrusted to the Belgian Jesuits.
In 1887, he had established a hierarchy of thirty dioceses in the Indies, and as a native clergy would have to be provided, an ecclesiastical seminary was imperative. The Propaganda was therefore commissioned to erect the buildings and provide for the maintenance of the teachers, and in virtue of the command 250 acres of land were bought in 1892 near the city of Kandy on the Ampitiya Hills. Father Grosjean, S. J., was appointed superior and began his work in a bungalow. It took five years before any suitable structures could be provided. The course of studies included three years of philosophy and four years of theology. There is now a staff of eleven professors and they have succeeded in overcoming a difficulty which seemed at first insurmountable, namely, the grouping together under one roof of a number of men who were of different castes and of different races. The bishops held off for a time, and in the first year only one diocese sent its pupils; three years later, seven were represented and now there are one hundred seminarians from all parts of India. They are so well trained that it is a rare thing for them not to satisfy their bishops when they return as priests. "The project of the great Pontiff, Leo XIII," says the Belgian chronicler, "seemed audacious but the results have justified it."
The Fathers found another friend in Pius X. They knew him when he was Bishop of Mantua, and he not only frequented their house but used to delight to stand at the gate distributing the usual dole to the poor.[904] He enjoyed immensely the joke of the coadjutor brother who said, "Bishop Sarto (sarto means tailor) will make a fine garment for the Church when he is Pope;" though the holy prelate never dreamt of any such honor in those days or even when he was Patriarch of Venice. When he went to his new see, he took his Jesuit confessor with him, and there, as at Mantua, he was at home with the community and found particular delight in talking to the brothers. When Farther Martín lost his arm in consequence of an operation for sarcoma, the Pope gave him permission to celebrate Mass. "I tried it myself to see if it were possible," he said, "and I found it could be done without much difficulty, so I give permission to Father General to offer the Holy Sacrifice, provided another priest assists him." When the new General, Father Wernz, and his associates presented themselves to the Pope after the election, he thanked God for having given him the Society, which he described as "a chosen body of soldiers, who were skilled in war, trained to fight, and ready at the first sign of their leader." He gave a further proof of the trust he had in them by putting into their hands the Pontifical Biblical Institute, which was part of the general purpose he had in view when, in 1901, he organized the Biblical Commission already described.
Apart from the esteem manifested by the Sovereign Pontiffs for the Society itself as a religious order, their personal regard for each successive General is worthy of note. Thus Pius VII, on being informed of the election of Father Brzozowski as General, immediately expressed his gratification by letter "that the Society had chosen a man of such merit and virtue." Leo XII, as we have said, lived on the most intimate and affectionate terms with Father Fortis. Only his brief career as Pontiff prevented him from giving more[905] positive proofs of his affection. The same may be said of Pius VIII, whose term was even shorter than that of Leo XII. During that time, however, he lavished favors on the Society. Gregory XVI made Father Roothaan his intimate friend and gave him any favor he asked, and Pius IX expressed the wish that "the Society would elect a General of equal prudence and wisdom, and who, like Roothaan, would be a man according to the heart of God." The amiable Father Beckx was always welcomed by Pius IX and their intercourse with each other was almost one of familiarity. When the General was on his death-bed, Leo XIII said to the Roman provincial: "I am deeply moved by the illness and suffering of Father Beckx for whom I have always entertained a great regard and even a filial affection. I most willingly send him my blessing; tonight in his pain and agony, I shall be at his side in spirit and aid him with my prayers."
In Father Beckx's successor, Father Anderledy, Leo XIII had absolute confidence. So too, Father Martín's return to Rome from Fiesole was made an occasion of great rejoicing for the Pope, who used to ask Cardinal Aloysius Massella good humoredly: "Why don't you give up your office and be a Jesuit?" When Father Martín presented himself for an audience in times of trouble, Leo would say to him affectionately: "Come here, Father General and sit beside me so that we can talk over our sorrows; for your sufferings are mine."
Of course, affection was almost expected from Pius X, and when Father Martín returned to Rome with his health slightly improved, his reception by the Pope was like that of a son coming from the grave to the arms of his father. Later on he kept himself informed about Father Martín's suffering and prayed for him several times every day. "We cannot spare such[906] men" was his expression; and when at last the General died, the Pope was deeply affected. "He was a man of God," was his exclamation, "A saint! A saint! A saint!" At the election of Father Wernz, Pius X spoke of the great good he had done to the whole Church by his profound learning as teacher in the Gregorian University. "There was scarcely any part of the world," he said, "where his merit was not acknowledged. He was known to all as the possessor of a great, solid and sure intelligence; of vast erudition which found expression in his learned treatises on the Law of Decretals, and which won the applause of all who were versed in canon law."
Another mark of this esteem for the Society, though an unwelcome one, was the elevation of so many of its members to ecclesiastical dignities by the Sovereign Pontiffs. First, in point of time, was the selection of John Carroll to be the founder of the American hierarchy. It was all the more notable because Challoner, the Vicar Apostolic of London, had repeatedly said that there was no one in America who measured up to the height of the episcopal dignity. The sequel proved that the Pontiff was wiser than the Vicar. We have already called attention to the fact not generally known that there was another Jesuit appointed to the See of Baltimore; though he never wore the mitre. He died before the Bulls arrived. His name was Laurence Grässel, and he had been a novice in the Society in Germany at the time of the Suppression. Carroll describes him as "a most amiable ex-Jesuit." Shea records the fact that "the Reverend Laurence Grässel, a learned and devoted priest, of whose sanctity tradition has preserved the most exalted estimate, revived the missions in New Jersey which had been attended by the Reverend Messrs. Schneider and Farmer." (Vol. II.)
[907] Leonard Neale, who succeeded Archbishop Carroll in the See of Baltimore, was a Jesuit priest in Liège at the Suppression. Before returning to his native country, he spent four years in England and four more in Demerara. In Philadelphia, when vicar general of Bishop Carroll, he was stricken with yellow fever while administering to the sick during the pestilence. Later he was made president of Georgetown College, and in 1801 was appointed Coadjutor of Baltimore. The successor of the illustrious Cheverus in the See of Boston was Benedict Fenwick, who had entered the Society in Maryland eight years before Pius VII re-established it throughout the world. The first Bishop of New York also would have been a Jesuit, Anthony Kohlmann, had not Father Roothaan, entreated the Pope to withdraw the nomination.
Anthony Kohlmann was born at Kaisersberg in Alsace, July 13, 1771. The outbreak of the French Revolution compelled him to leave his country when he was a young man and betake himself to Switzerland to continue his interrupted studies. He completed his theological course and was ordained a priest in the College of Fribourg. In 1796 he joined the Congregation of the Fathers of the Sacred Heart, and labored for two years in Austria and Italy as a military chaplain. We find him next at Dillingen in Bavaria as the director of an ecclesiastical seminary. By this time the Fathers of the Faith, Paccanari's organization, had united with those of the Sacred Heart, and Kohlmann was dispatched to Berlin and subsequently to Amsterdam as rector of a new college in that place.
As soon as he heard that the Jesuits in White Russia had been recognized by the Pope, he applied for admission, and entered the novitiate at Duneburg on 21 June, 1803, and in the following year was sent to Georgetown as assistant-master of novices.[908] While holding that position he travelled extensively through Pennsylvania and Maryland to look after several groups of German colonists who had settled in those states. When the ecclesiastical troubles of New York were at their height, Bishop Carroll selected Kohlmann to restore order. With him went Father Benedict Fenwick and four scholastics. He was given charge of that whole district in 1808. There were about fourteen thousand Catholics there at the time: French, German and Irish. In 1809 he laid the corner stone of old St. Patrick's, which was the second church in the city. He also founded the New York Literary Institution as a school for boys, on what is now the site of the present cathedral, but which then was far out of town. In 1812 he began a nearby school for girls and gave it to the Ursuline nuns, who had been sent from Ireland for that purpose.
Father Kohlmann rendered a great service to the Church by the part he took in gaining a verdict for the protection of the seal of Confession. He had acted as agent in the restitution of stolen money when the owner of it demanded the name of the thief. As this was refused, he haled the priest to court, but the case ended in a decision given by the presiding Judge, DeWitt Clinton, that "no minister of the Gospel or priest of any denomination whatsoever shall be allowed to disclose any confession made to him in his professional character in the course of discipline enjoined by the rules or practices of such denomination." This decision was embodied in a state law passed on December 10, 1828. His controversy with Jared Sparks, a well-known Unitarian, brought his reply entitled "Unitarianism, theologically and philosophically considered." It is a classic on that topic.
As mentioned above, Kohlmann was designated Bishop of New York, but at the entreaty of the General of[909] the Society, the Pope withdrew his name. In 1815 he returned to Georgetown as master of novices, and in 1817 was appointed president of the college. In 1824 he was called to Rome as professor of theology in the Gregorian University and occupied that post for five years. Among his students were the future Pope Leo XIII, Cardinal Cullen of Dublin, and Cardinal McCloskey of New York. Both Leo XII and Gregory XVI held Kohlmann in the highest esteem and had him attached to them as consultor to the staffs of the College of cardinals and to several important congregations such as that of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs; of Bishops and Regulars; and the Inquisition. He died at Rome in 1836, in consequence of overwork in the confessional.
It might be of interest to quote here a passage from the "Life of John Cardinal McCloskey" by Cardinal Farley: "About this time Father McCloskey suffered the loss of a very dear and devoted friend, Father Anthony Kohlmann, S. J. As pastor of St. Peter's, Barclay Street, he had been the adviser of the young priest's parents in New York for many years. He had seen him grow up from childhood, and had been his guide and friend in Rome. It is therefore but natural that he should express himself feelingly on the death of this holy man, as in this letter addressed to the Very Rev. Dr. Power:
In Hughes's "History of the Society of Jesus in North America" (I, pt. ii, 866) there is a quotation from the "Memoirs" of Father Grassi which refers to Father Kohlmann and calls for consideration. He is described by the odious name of Paccanarist. As a matter of fact, Kohlmann joined the Fathers of the Sacred Heart in 1796, three years before Paccanari was even heard of. In April 1799, by order of the Pope, the Fathers of the Sacred Heart were amalgamated with Paccanari's Fathers of the Faith, but from the very beginning there was distinct cleavage between the two sections; and in 1803 when it became evident[911] that Paccanari had no intention of uniting with the Jesuits in Russia, Kohlmann was one of the first to separate from him and was admitted to the Society in that year. If he was a "Paccanarist," then so were Rozaven and Varin.Rome, April 15, 1836.'Very Rev. dear Sir:'It is truly with deep regret that I now feel it my duty to acquaint you with the news which, if not already known to you, cannot but give you pain. Our venerable and most worthy friend, Father Kohlmann, is no more. He has been summoned to another world, after a warning of only a few days. On Friday, [910]the 8th. inst., he was as usual in his confessional. During the course of the day he was seized with a violent fever which obliged him to take to his bed, and on Sunday morning, about five o'clock, he was a corpse. On Monday, I had the melancholy pleasure of beholding him laid out in the Church of the Gesù, where numbers were assembled to show respect for his memory, and to view for a little time his mortal remains. His sickness was so very short that death effected but little change in his appearance. He seemed to be in a gentle sleep, such calmness and placidity. His countenance seemed to have lost nothing of its usual fulness or even freshness. And such was the composure of every feature, that one could hardly resist saying within himself: He is not dead, but sleepeth. His loss as you may well conceive, is deeply regretted by the members of his Order here as well as by all who knew him.
'As for myself, I feel his death most sensibly, having lost in him so prudent a director, so kind a father and friend. You also, Very Reverend and dear Sir, are deprived by his death of a most active and valuable friend in Rome.'"
We are also informed that Kohlmann was an ex-Capuchin. It is strange, however, that Guidée makes no mention of it in his historical sketches of the Fathers of the Sacred Heart. Moreover, if he ever were a member of that Order, it must have been for an extremely brief period; for he was born in 1771, and at the outbreak of the French Revolution which swept away all religious communities he was only eighteen years of age. We find him then finishing his theological studies at Fribourg where the Jesuits had been conspicuous before the Suppression, and he was ordained a priest in 1796, when he was twenty-five years old. Immediately afterwards, he joined the Fathers of the Sacred Heart. So that if he ever had been a Capuchin it must have been at a very early age; and in any case he did not leave his Order voluntarily. It had been swept out of existence in the general storm.
Grassi tells us also that, out of pity for the distressed religious who had been thrown out of their homes at that time, the General of the Society had asked the Pope to lift the ban against the Society's receiving into its ranks the members of other Orders — a policy which it had always pursued, both out of respect for the Orders themselves, and because a change in such a serious matter would imply instability of character in the applicant. Father Pignatelli was deputed to submit the cause to His Holiness, and Grassi is in admiration at the sublime obedience of Pignatelli in doing what he was told; but it is hard to imagine why he should be so edified. The Professed of the Society make a special and solemn vow of obedience to the[912] Pope and admit his decision without question. Even when the Pope suppressed the entire Society they defended his action. Where is there anything heroic in being merely the messenger between the General and the Pope? In any case Kohlmann's admission to the Society was with the full approval of both the Sovereign Pontiff and the General, even if he had been a Capuchin, which is by no means certain.
We are also informed that the authorities in Rome were surprised that Kohlmann was admitted to his last vows before the customary ten years had elapsed, but there are many such instances in the history of the Society, and the General in referring to it may have been merely asking for information. Finally with regard to the alleged worry about Kohlmann's appointment as Vicar General of New York; it suffices to say that the office is of its nature temporary, and cannot well be classified as a prelacy; especially as there was only one permanent church structure in the entire episcopal territory that stretched between the Hudson River and Lake Erie, and the clergy was largely made up of transients.
At the time that Father Kohlmann was mentioned for the See of New York, Father Peter Kenny was proposed for that of Dromore in Ireland. Foley in his "Chronological Catalogue of the Irish Province S. J." gives a brief account of this very distinguished man, who like Kohlmann was for some time identified with the Church in the United States.
He was born in Dublin, July 7, 1779, and entered the Society at Hodder, Stonyhurst, September 20, 1804. He died in the Gesù at Rome, November 19, 1841. When a boy he attracted the notice of Father Thomas Betagh, the last of the Irish Jesuits of the old Society, who was then Vicar General of Dublin, and was sent to Carlow College. Even in early youth he was[913] remarkable for his extraordinary eloquence. When a novice he was told to come down from the pulpit, his fellow-novices being so spell-bound that they refused to eat. At Stonyhurst, he wrote a work on mathematics and physics. In 1811 he was Vice-President of Maynooth College. He purchased Clongowes Wood in 1814, and in 1819 was sent as visitor to the Jesuit houses of Maryland. He was made vice-provincial of Ireland in 1829, and again came to America in 1830, where he remained for three years and then installed Father McSherry as the first provincial of the American province. His retreats in Ireland are still enthusiastically referred to and quoted. In 1809 when he was finishing his theology in Palermo, Father Angiolini wrote to Father Plowden "Father Kenny is head and shoulders over every one. He has genius, health, zeal, energy, success in action and prudence to a remarkable degree. May God keep him for the glory and increase of the Irish Missions!" God did so and the missions of America also profited by his genius and virtue.
Later on, Father Van de Velde was made Bishop of Chicago, but he continually petitioned Rome to be allowed to return to the Society; while Father Miège after twenty-four years of the episcopate and without waiting to celebrate his silver jubilee became a Jesuit again and spent his last days at Woodstock, where he met Father Michael O'Connor, who had resigned the See of Pittsburg in order to assume the habit of St. Ignatius. His brother before being made Bishop of Omaha asked to enter the Society but he was told "Be a bishop first like your brother and afterwards a Jesuit." One of the most distinguished Jesuits of New York, Father Larkin, had to flee the country to avoid being made Bishop of Toronto, and Father William Duncan of Boston would have occupied[914] the See of Savannah had not he entered the Society.
The same thing is true of the cardinalate. An unusually large number of Jesuits have been raised to that dignity in the hundred years of the new Society, in spite of the oath they have taken to do all in their power to prevent it, an oath which they have all most faithfully kept, yielding only because they were bidden to do so under pain of sin.
Camillo Mazzella entered the Society in 1857, and when the scholasticate at Woodstock in Maryland was opened, he was made prefect of studies. He was called to Rome in 1878 to take the place of Franzelin in the Gregorian University. In 1886 he was created Cardinal deacon and ten years later Cardinal priest, while in 1897 he was appointed Cardinal bishop of Palestrina. Camillo Tarquini was made cardinal because of his prominence as a canonist; Andreas Steinhüber's learning and his great labors as Vatican librarian won for him the honor of the purple, while Louis Billot after teaching dogmatic theology at Angers and the Gregorian University was named Cardinal deacon of Santa Maria in Via Lata on November 27, 1911. But much greater consolation has been afforded to the new Society by the canonization of its saints than by the choice of its members for the cardinalate. One is a recognition of the intellectual ability and personal virtue; the other is an official, though indirect, approval of the Institute.
At the very time that Pombal, Choiseul and Charles III were crushing the Society in their respective countries, Rome as if in condemnation of the act was jubilant with delight over the heroic virtue of the Italian Jesuit, Francis Hieronymo; and people were asking each other how a Society could be bad when it[915] produced such a saint? In an issue of the "Gazette" of distant Quebec at that time we find a bewildered Protestant Englishman who was the journal's correspondent at Rome asking himself that question. The political troubles of the period caused the proceedings of the canonization to be suspended, but Gregory XVI, who succeeded Leo XII, canonized Francis on the Feast of the Blessed Trinity, 1839. Pius IX beatified Canisius, Bobola, Faber, de Britto and Berchmans, with Peter Claver, the apostle of the negroes, and the lay-brother Alphonso Rodríguez, besides placing the crown of martyrdom on the throng of martyrs in Japan, Europeans and natives alike, as well as upon Azevedo and his thirty-nine Portuguese associates who were slaughtered at sea near the Azores.
Leo XIII beatified Antonio Baldinucci and Rudolph Aquaviva with his fellow-Jesuits who were put to death at Salsette in Hindostan, besides raising to the honors of sainthood Peter Claver and Alphonso Rodríguez, and also placing John Berchmans in the same category, thus re-affirming the sanctity of the rules of the Society, for the realization of which the holy youth had already been beatified. The canonization of Alphonso is also notable because it was by Leo XII, whose name Leo XIII had adopted, that the humble porter of Minorca was raised to the first honors of the altar. Finally, Pius X showed his love for the Society and his approval of the rule by beatifying the three martyrs of Hungary whom scarcely anybody had ever heard of before: Mark Crisin, Stephen Pongracz and Melchior Grodecz. There is also under consideration the beatification of the great American apostles Jogues, Brébeuf, Lalemant, Daniel, Chabanel, Garnier, Goupil and Lalande, five of whom died for the Faith in Canada, and three in what is now the State of New York.
[916] The new Society has not failed to add new names to this catalogue of honor of prospective saints. They are Joseph Pignatelli, who died in 1811; Father Joseph de Clorivière, 1820; Paul Cappelari, 1857; and Paul Ginhac, 1895. Five Jesuits were put to death at Paris in 1871 by the Communards: namely Pierre Olivaint, Anatole de Bengy, Alexis Clerc, Léon Ducoudray, and Jean Caubert.
Between 1822 and 1902, forty-four others have given glory to the Society either by the heroic sanctity of their lives, or by shedding their blood for the Faith. Besides these, there are thirty-five Jesuits who have been put to death in various parts of the world. They are: four Italians, Ferdinando Bonacini and Luigi Massa in 1860; Genaio Pastore in 1887 and Emilio Moscoso in 1897; four Germans: Anthony Terorde in 1880; Stephen Czimmerman, Joseph Platzer and Clemens Wigger who were killed by the Caffirs in 1895-6. The French can boast of 12 namely: Bishop Planchet in 1859; Edouard Billotet; Elie Jounès, Habib Maksoud, and Alphonse Habeisch who were killed in Syria in 1860; Martin Brutail in 1883; Gaston de Batz in 1883; Modeste Andlauer, Léon Mangin, Remi Isoré, and Paul Denn, who met their death in the Boxer Uprising in 1900; Léon Müller was killed by the Boxers two years later. Sixteen Spaniards were put to death: Casto Hernández, Juan Sauri, Juan Artigas, José Fernández, Juan Elola, José Urrietta, Domingo Barreau, José Garnier, José Sancho, Pedro Demont, Firmin Barba, Martín Buxons, Emanuel Ostolozza, Juan Ruedas, Vincente Gogorza, who were massacred in Madrid in 1834.
[917]
CHAPTER XXX
CONCLUSION
Successive Generals in the Restored Society — Present Membership, Missions and Provinces.As we have seen, the first General of the Society elected after the Restoration was Father Fortis, who died on January 27, 1829. On June 29 of that year Father John Roothaan was chosen as his successor on the fourth ballot. As in the previous election, Father Rozaven was the choice of many of the delegates.
John Philip Roothaan, the twenty-first General of the Society, was born at Amsterdam on November 23, 1785, and finished his classical studies in the Atheneum Illustre under the famous Jakob van Lennep. When he had made up his mind to enter the Society in White Russia in 1804, his distinguished teacher, though a Protestant, gave him the following letter of introduction: "I am fully aware of how in former times the Society distinguished itself in every branch of knowledge. Its splendid services in that respect can never be forgotten, and I am, therefore, especially pleased to recommend this young man whose merit I most highly appreciate. May he be enriched with all your science and your virtues, and I trust to see him again in possession of those treasures which he has gone so far to seek."
The praise was well merited, for, even at that early period of his life, Roothaan had mastered French, Polish, Latin, Greek and Hebrew. He studied philosophy at Polotsk, and in 1812 was ordained priest. After the expulsion he went to Switzerland in 1820, and taught rhetoric there for three years. As socius to the provincial, he made the tour of all the Jesuit[918] houses in Germany, Switzerland, Belgium and Holland three times, and afterwards was appointed rector of the new college in Turin. As General, his chief care was to strengthen the internal life of the Society. His first eleven encyclicals have that object in view. His edition of the "Exercises" is a classic. In 1832 he published the "Revised Order of Studies," adapting the Ratio to the needs of the times; and he increased the activities of the Society in the mission fields. But his long term of office was one uninterrupted series of trials. His enforced visit to the greater number of the houses has already been told in a preceding chapter.
Among the many things for which the Society is profoundly grateful to Father Roothaan is the very remarkable publication of the "Exercises of St. Ignatius." According to Astrain, "the autograph was in rough and labored Castilian," for it must be remembered that the saintly author was a Basque. "The text," he tells us, "arrests the attention," not by its elegance but, "by the energetic precision and brevity with which certain thoughts are expressed. The autograph itself no longer exists. What goes by that name is only a quarto copy made by some secretary, but containing corrections in the author's handwriting. It has been reproduced by photography. Two Latin translations were made of it during the lifetime of St. Ignatius. There remain now, first the versio antiqua or ancient Latin translation, which is a literal version, probably by the saint himself; second, a free translation by Father Frusius, more elegant and more in accordance with the style of the period. It is commonly called the 'Vulgate.' The versio antiqua bears the date, Rome, July 9, 1541. The 'Vulgate' is later than 1541 but earlier than 1548, when the two versions were presented to Paul III for approval. He[919] appointed three examiners, who warmly praised both versions, but the Vulgate was the only one printed. It was published in Rome on September 11, 1548, and was called the editio princeps.
"Besides these two translations, there are two others. One is the still unpublished text left by Blessed Peter Faber to the Carthusians of Cologne before 1546. It holds a middle place between the literal document and the Vulgate. The second was made by Father Roothaan, who, on account of the differences between the Vulgate and the Spanish autograph, wished to translate the Exercises into Latin as accurately as possible, at the same time making use of the versio antiqua. His intention was not to supplant the Vulgate, and on that account he published the work of Frusius and his own in parallel columns (1835)."
Father Roothaan was succeeded as General by Father Beckx, who was born in 1795 at Sichem, near Diest, the town that glories in being the birthplace of St. John Berchmans. He entered the Society at Hildesheim in 1819, after having been a secular priest for eight months. In 1825 he was appointed chaplain of the Duke of Anhalt-Köthen, who had become a Catholic after visiting the home of one of his Catholic friends in France. Anhalt-Köthen is in Prussian Saxony, and there were only twenty Catholics in the entire duchy when Beckx arrived there. Before four years had passed, the number had grown to two hundred. In 1830 he was sent to Vienna and for a time was the only Jesuit in that city. In 1852 he was made provincial of Austria and had the happiness of leading back his brethren to the beloved Innsbruck as well as to Lenz and Lemberg. In the following year he was elected General, and occupied the post for thirty-four years. He used to say that at the time he entered into office the province of Portugal consisted of one[920] Jesuit and a half. The one was in hiding in Lisbon, and the "half" was a novice in Turin. Even now they number only three hundred. All the houses have been seized by the Republican government and the Fathers, scholastics and brothers expelled from their native land in the usual brutal fashion.
During Father Beckx's term of office eighty Jesuits were raised to the honors of the altar. All but three of them were martyrs. In spite of this the Society was expelled from Italy in 1860; from Spain in 1868; and from Germany in 1873, at which time the General and the assistants left Rome, where, after the Piedmontese occupation, it was no longer safe to live. They took up their abode at Fiesole and there the curia, as it is called, remained until after the death of Father Beckx's successor. In 1883 the age and infirmities of the General made the election of a vicar peremptory, and Father Anderledy was chosen. Father Beckx died at the age of ninety-two, and one who saw him in the closing years of his life thus writes of him: "This holy old man who has attained the age of nearly ninety years, so modest, so humble, so prudent, always the same; always amiable, with the glory of thirty years' government and of interior martyrdom inflicted upon him by the mishaps of the Society, was a spectacle to fill one with admiration. His angelic mien delighted me. With how great charity he received me in his room! With what deference! His poor cassock was patched. He is as punctual at the exercises as the most vigorous. In spite of his old age he observes all the laws of fasting and abstinence. At a quarter past five he commences his Mass and spends considerable time kneeling before the Blessed Sacrament. God grant us many imitators of his virtues."
Father Anderledy was a Swiss. He was born in the canton of Valais in 1819, and entered the Society at[921] Brieg in 1838. He was sent to Rome for his theological studies and it is reported that he was such a pertinacious disputant that old Father Perrone said to him one day: "Young man, cease or I shall get angry." In the disturbances of 1847, he was on his way to Switzerland when he was halted by a squad of furious soldiers who asked him "Are you a Jesuit?" "What do you mean by a Jesuit?" he asked. When the conventional answer was given, he angrily demanded "Do you take me for a scoundrel?" and they let him pass. In 1848 he was sent to America and was ordained at St. Louis by Archbishop Kenrick and then put in charge of a German parish at Green Bay, Wisconsin, a place teeming with memories of the old Jesuit missionaries: Marquette, Allouez and others. On his return to Europe, he went through Germany preaching missions and winning a reputation as a great orator, although working in conjunction with the famous Father Roh. He was made rector of the College of Cologne and, subsequently, professor at the scholasticate of Maria-Laach. In 1870 he was called to Rome to be made German assistant, and in 1883 he was elected vicar to Father Beckx with the right of succession. He was particularly zealous as General in promoting the study of theology and philosophy, and in training men in the physical sciences. During his administration, the Society increased from 11,840 members to 13,275, but he was very much adverse to the establishment of new provinces. The creation of Canada as an independent mission was all he would grant in that direction. He died at Fiesole on 18 January, 1892.
Luis Martín García, or, as he is commonly called, Father Martín, who succeeded Father Anderledy, was the fifth Spanish General of the Society. He was born on 19 August, 1846, at Melgar de Fermamental,[922] a small town about twenty-five miles north-west of Burgos, and was already a seminarian in his second year of theology when he began to think of becoming a religious. To be a Jesuit, however, was at first as abhorrent to him as becoming a Saracen. But his ideas on that point began to clarify when he heard his very distinguished professor Don Manuel González Peña, who had been a theologian in the Vatican Council, discourse enthusiastically and on every occasion, about the glories of Suárez, Toletus, Petavius, Bellarmine and the other great lights of the Society. The impression was heightened by some letters from the Philippine Jesuits which had fallen into his hands, and Crétineau-Joly's history also contributed to his change of views. A conversation with the Jesuit superior of the residence at Burgos, and the departure of a brilliant fellow-student for the novitiate, completed the disillusionment and he was admitted at Loyola on 13 October, 1864.
In 1870, when the Society was expelled from Spain, he went with the other scholastics to Vals in France, and later to Poyanne. In the latter place he remained as minister and professor of dogmatic theology until 1880, and when the religious were expelled from France he returned to Spain and was made superior of the scholasticate which had been opened in Salamanca. He was charged also with the duty of teaching theology and Hebrew. In 1886 he opened the house of studies at Bilbao, and in the same year he was made provincial of Castile. Previous to that he had been the editor of "The Messenger of the Sacred Heart" for a year. In 1891 he was summoned to Rome by Father Anderledy, to analyze and summarize the reports sent in by all the provinces on the proposed quinquennium of theology and a new arrangement of studies. On the death of Father Anderledy he was made Vicar General.[923] He was then only forty-five years of age. His appointment coincided with the outbreak of an epidemic of influenza of which he was very near being a victim. Singularly enough, it was this same disease that carried him off thirteen years later, supervening as it did on the terrible sarcoma from which he had long been suffering.
As Vicar he convoked the general congregation, assigning September 23 as the date and choosing Loyola in Spain as the place of meeting. It was the first time in the history of the Society that the convention took place outside of Rome, with the exception of the meetings in Russia during the Suppression. The reason for the decision was that the Pope let it be known that it would not be possible to remain in session in Rome for any considerable period, though he suggested that they might elect the General in Rome and then continue the congregation elsewhere. After long deliberation by the assistants, it was determined not to separate the election from the other proceedings. As for the place of meeting, Loyola was chosen, though Tronchiennes in Belgium had been offered. The choice of Spain was determined by the vote of the assistant who had no Spanish affiliations. Father Martín was elected general on 2 October, and the sessions continued until 5 December.
In this congregation, Father Martín called the attention of the delegates to the fact that no Jesuit had ever addressed himself to the task of writing the complete history of the Order; an abstention, it might be urged, which ought to acquit them of the accusation of unduly praising the Society. Father Aquaviva had indeed commissioned Orlandini to begin the work, but the distinguished writer not only got no further then the Generalate of St. Ignatius but did not even publish his book. Sacchini his continuator had to see[924] to the publication; his own contributions appeared in 1615 and 1621. Jouvancy was then called to Rome to finish the second half of the fifth section which had by that time appeared, but he did not advance beyond the year 1616. He had bad luck with it even in that small space, for certain opinions appeared in it about the rights of sovereigns which were not acceptable to the Bourbon kings, and the book was forbidden in France by decrees of Parliament, dated 25 February and 25 March, 1715. Finally, Cordara, an Italian, assumed the task and wrote two volumes, which though exquisitely done embraced not more than seventeen years of Father Vitelleschi's generalate (1616-33), and only one volume was published then. More than one hundred years elapsed before the second appeared. It was edited by Raggazzini in 1859.
It was high time, Father Martín declared, that something should be done to remedy this condition of affairs and that a history of the Society should be written on a scale commensurate with the greatness of the subject, and in keeping with the methods which modern requirements look for in historical writing. As the undertaking in the way it was conceived would have been too much for any one man, a literary syndicate was established in which Father Hughes was assigned to write the history of the Society's work in English-speaking America, Father Astrain that of the Spanish assistancy, Father Venturi the Italian, Father Fouqueray the French, Father Dühr and Father Kroess the German. This work is now in progress. Those who are engaged on it are men of unimpeachable integrity. Meantime an immense number of hitherto unpublished documents are being put in the hands of the writers. As many as fifty bulky volumes known as the "Monumenta historica Societatis Jesu," consisting of the chronicles of the[925] houses and provinces, the intimate correspondence of many of the great men of the Society, such as Ignatius, Laínez, Borgia etc., have been printed, and sent broadcast through all the provinces. Nor is this mass of material jealously guarded by the Jesuits themselves. It is available to any sincere investigator.
As the Congregation had expressed the desire that the residence of the General and his assistants at Fiesole be closed, and that if the political troubles would permit it he should return to Rome, Father Martín, after consulting with the Pope, who granted the permission with some hesitation, established himself at the Collegium Germanicum on 20 January, 1895. The public excitement that was apprehended did not occur. The papers merely chronicled the fact but made no ado about it whatever. Father Martín had much to console him, during his administration, as, for instance, the beatification of several members of the Society, but he had also many sorrows such as the closing of all the houses in France by the Waldeck-Rousseau government and the deplorable defections of some Jesuits in connection with the Modernist movement.
In 1905 the first symptoms of the disease that was to carry him off in a short time declared themselves. In that year, four cancerous swellings developed in his right arm. He had submitted to the painful cutting of two of them without the aid of anesthetics. The operation lasted two hours and a half, and he maintained his consciousness throughout. A little later, the other swellings showed signs of gangrene and the amputation of the arm was decided upon, but in this instance he submitted to chloroform. He rallied after the operation and in spite of his crippled condition was permitted by the Pope to say Mass.[926] His strength had left him, however, and on 15 February, 1906 he was attacked by influenza and he died on 18 April at the age of sixty. At his death the Society numbered 15,515 members.
Father Martín's successor was Francis Xavier Wernz who was born in Würtemberg in 1842. When the Society was expelled from Germany in 1872, he went to Ditton Hall in England to complete his studies, after having spent the greater part of a year in the army ambulance-corps, during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870. He taught canon law for several years at Ditton Hall, and in 1882 was a professor at St. Beuno's in Wales. From there he was transferred to the Gregorian University in Rome, where he lectured from 1883 to 1906. In September of the latter year, he was elected General, in which post he lived only eight years. Previous to his election, he had issued four volumes of his great work on canon law. Two others were published later, one of them after his death. The end of his labors came on 19 August, 1914. He was then in his seventy-second year and had passed fifty-seven years in the Society. It was during this generalate that the provinces of Canada, New Orleans, Mexico, California and Hungary were erected.
Father Wladimir Ledóchowski was elected to the vacant post on 11 February, 1915. He was then only forty-nine years of age. He entered the Society in 1889, and in 1902, shortly after his ordination, was made provincial of Galicia, while in 1906 he was elected as assistant to Father Wernz. He is the nephew of the famous Cardinal Ledóchowski, whom Bismarck imprisoned for his courageous championship of the rights of Poland.
The new Society like the old has not failed to produce saints and at the present moment the lives of a very considerable number of those who have lived and[927] labored in the century that has elapsed since the restoration are being considered by the Church as possible candidates for canonization.
The number of Jesuits who were under the colors as soldiers, chaplains or stretcher bearers or volunteers in the World War of 1914-1918 ran up to 2014, — a very great drain on the Society as a whole, which in 1918 had only 17,205 names on its rolls, among whom were very many incapacitated either by age or youth or ailment for any active work. Of the 2014 Belgium furnished 165, Austria 82, France 855, Germany 376, Italy 369, England 83, Ireland 30, Canada 4 and the United States 50. Of the 83 English Jesuits serving as chaplains, 5 died while in the service, 2 won the Distinguished Service Order, 13 the Military Cross, 3 the Order of the British Empire, 21 were mentioned in despatches, 2 were mentioned for valuable services and 4 received foreign decorations, — a total of 45 distinctions.
France calls for special notice in this matter. From the four French provinces of the Society 855 Jesuits were mobilized. Of these 107 were officers, 3 commandants, 1 lieutenant-commander, 13 captains, 4 naval lieutenants, 22 lieutenants, 50 second-lieutenants, 1 naval ensign, and 5 officers in the health services. The loss in dead was 165 Jesuits, of whom 28 were chaplains, 30 officers, 36 sub-officers, 17 corporals and 54 privates. The number of distinctions won is almost incredible. The decoration of the Légion d'honneur was conferred on 68, the Médaille militaire on 48, the Médaille des épidémies on 4, the Croix de guerre on 320, the Moroccan or Tunisian medal on 3, while 595 were mentioned in despatches, and 18 foreign decorations were received: in all 1,056 distinctions were won by the 855 Jesuits in the French army and navy (The Jesuit Directory, 1921). "What[928] party or group or club or lodge," says a sometime unfriendly paper, the "Italia," "can claim a similar distinction?" Another of their distinctions is that Foch, de Castelnau, Fayolle, Guynemer and many more French heroes were trained in Jesuit schools. Finally, the French Jesuits performed this marvellous service to their country in spite of the fact that the government of that country had closed and confiscated every one of their churches and colleges from one end of France to the other, and by so doing had exiled these loyal subjects from their native land. To add to the outrage, they were summoned back when the war began, and not one of them failed to respond immediately, returning from distant missions among savages at the ends of the earth or from civilized countries that were more hospitable to them than their own for the defense of which they willingly offered their lives. Now, when the war is over, they have no home to go to.
In 1912, two years before the War, the Society had on its rolls 16,545 members. At the beginning of 1920 it had 17,250 members: 8,454 priests, 4,819 scholastics, 3,977 lay-brothers. The Society is divided into what are called assistancies. The Italian assistancy, which is composed of the provinces of Rome, Naples, Sicily, Turin and Venice, numbers in all 1,415 members. The frequent dispersions and confiscations to which this section has been subjected account for the small number. Thus, the Roman province has only 354, and Sicily has but 223. In the assistancy there are 748 priests, but the prospects of the increase of this category is the reverse of encouraging, for there are only 308 scholastics. The lay-brothers number 359. What has acted as a deterrent in Italy has, paradoxically, acted in a contrary sense in the German assistancy. Several of these provinces have been dis[929]persed, but they aggregate as many as 4,329 members. Belgium is a strong factor in this large number, for it totals 1,279, of whom 672 are priests; the Germans, who have no establishment in their own country, but are scattered over the earth, have a membership of 1,210, of whom 664 are in Holy Orders. Austria has 356 on her register, Poland 464, Czecho-Slovakia 114, Jugoslavia 113, Hungary 212, while Holland has as many as 581.
The Waldeck-Rousseau Associations Law of 1901 not only confiscated every Jesuit establishment in France but denied the Society the right even to possess property. Nevertheless, unlike Italy the provinces of Champagne, France, Lyons and Toulouse show 2,758 names in their catalogues for 1920. They have 1,647 priests with 583 scholastics to draw on. The Spaniards are grouped in the provinces of Aragon, Castile, Mexico, and Toledo, to which has been added the Province of Portugal. This combination has 1,760 to its credit. Possibly the figures would have been larger had not the Revolution of 1901 brought about the exile of the Jesuits. The English assistancy which until recently included the United States, has now 1,622 members of whom 793 are priests and 544 scholastics: England 750, Canada 472 and Ireland 400. The assistancy of America has 2,892 members of whom 1,230 are priests with a future supply to draw on of 1,214 scholastics. The contingent of scholastics exceeds that of any other assistancy by more than a hundred. The province of California has 485 members, Maryland-New York, 1,080; Missouri, 1,022 and New Orleans, 305.
Besides its regularly established houses the Society has missions scattered throughout the world. Thus, in Europe its missionaries are to be found in Albania; in Asia, they are working in Armenia, Syria, Ceylon, Assam, Bengal, Bombay, Poona, Goa, Madura, Man[930]galore, Japan, Canton, Nankin, and South East Tche-ly. In Africa, they are in Egypt, Cape Colony, Zambesi, Rhodesia, Belgian Congo, and Madagascar, Mauritius and Réunion; in America, they are working in Jamaica and among the Indians of Alaska, Canada, South Dakota, the Rocky Mountains, the Pimería, and Guiana; finally in Oceania, they are toiling in Celebes, Flores, Java, and the Philippines. To these missions 1,707 Jesuits are devoting their lives in direct contact with the aborigines.
[931]
INDEX
A
Africa, 85 et seq.
Alcalá, 52
Alegambe, 867
Alegre, 370
Alexandria, 109, 811
Alfonso Rodriguez, St., 383
Algonquins, 338
Allen, Cardinal, 134sq.
Allouez, 338
Aloysius, St., 181
Alphonsus Liguori, St., 380, 604
Alva, Duke of, 428
Amaguchi, 167
Amherst, 594
Amiot, 632
Anchieta, 89
Anderledy, 763, 899
Andrada, 237, 372
Angiolini, 678
Angola, 85
Antilles, 306
Appellants, 153
Aquaviva, Claudius, 132sq.
Aquaviva, Rudolph, 75, 384
Aranda, 421, 507
Araoz, 36, 104, 203
Archetti, 648
Archipresbyterate, 153
Arévalo, 836
Armenians, 805
Arnauld, 11, 216, 277
Asia, 229 et seq.
Assembly of the Clergy, 412, 486
Aubeterre, 497, 530
Auger, 41, 57
Augustinus, 281
Avogado, 678
Avril, 266
Azevedo, 90, 384
B
Backer, de, 868
Baertz, 77
Bagnorea, 30
Bagotists, 244
Baius, 112
Balde, 358, 362
Ballerini, 878
Barat, Mme., 672
Baronius, 112
Basilians, 902
Bathe, Christopher, 307
Bathori, 123
Beaumont, de, 488, 588
Beguines, 2
Beirut, 807
Bellarmine, 68, 110, 215
Belloc, 285
Bengy, de, 761
Benislawski, 65
Bernis, Cardinal, 532sq.
Berryer, 737
Beschi, 233
Betagh, 912
Beard, 334
Biblical Institute, 764
Billiart, 673
Billot, Cardinal, 914
Blackwell, 153
Bobadilla, 21sqq.
Bobola, 384
Bollandists, 370, 869
Bonzes, 80, 256
Borgias, 102
Boscovich, 367, 622
Bossuet, 353
Bouhours, 367
Bourdaloue, 264, 283
Boxer uprising, 791
Brazil, 87 et seq.
Brébeuf, 291, 385
Bressani, 336
Britto, John de, 233
Broglie, Charles de, 665
Brouet, 25sqq.
Brugelette, 757
Brzozowski, 685
Bungo, 176
Busembaum, 380
Buteux, 338
Bye Plot, 157
C
Cabral, 87, 174-5
Calcutta, 764, 794-5, 801, 829, 843
California, 828, 833, 926, 929. See Lower California
Calvinists, 87, 334, 801
Cambrensis, 137
Campion, 134, 136-40, 143-6, 384, 857
Canada, 262, 291, 334-9, 425-6, 594, 711, 764, 781, 824, 874, 921
Canisius, Peter, 2, 23, 45, 51, 65, 67, 70, 102, 272, 345, 384, 598, 915
Canonization, 381-2
Canton, 248, 250, 252, 260-1, 930
Capuchins, 292, 312, 500, 911
Caraffa, 208, 225, 391, 549, 574
Carbonari, 894, 897
Carbonelle, 857
Cardinals, 914
Caribs, 309
Carinthia, 346, 376
Carlos, Don, 742
Carmelites, 801, 869
Carranza, 53
Carroll, Charles, 711
Carroll, John, 595, 616, 659, 674, 700, 706, 711, 732, 882, 906
Cartagena, 305, 314
Cartography, 253, 376, 631, 852, 861
Casaubon, 118-9, 221
Cases of Conscience, 290
Caste, 230, 250, 264, 797, 802
Casuistry, 285
Catechism, 38 (of Canisius, 49);
(of Trent), 54, 108
"Catechisme des jésuites," 273
Catherine II, Empress of Russia, 587, 605, 635, 641-60, 662, 677, 719
[932]
Catholic Encyclopedia, 866
Catholicæ Fidei, 38, 661, 694, 716
Cathrein, 288, 880
Caughnawaga, 338, 775
Cavalcanti, 853
Cayenne, 312, 841
Celibacy, 120
Centuriators of Magdeburg, 49
Ceylon, 802, 903, 929
Chabanel, 336, 385, 915
Challoner, 599, 602, 906
Charles V., Emperor, 9, 23, 38, 44, 51, 102, 344
Charles Borromeo, St., 15, 102, 138, 218
Charlevoix, 171, 370
Cheminais, 481
Chile, 298, 373, 425, 529, 627, 762, 774
China, 81, 124, 173, 245-67, 372, 375, 424, 470, 627, 679, 770, 776, 788-93, 824, 828, 834, 843, 861
Choiseul, Duc de, 314, 419, 429, 496, 500-3, 509, 512, 524, 535
Christina of Sweden, 128
"Civiltà Catolica," 874, 899
Clavigero, 369, 619
Clavius, 246, 355, 371
Clement VIII, 56, 111, 113, 118, 153-5, 157, 209, 213, 217, 240, 385, 436, 556
Clement XIII, 15, 422, 435 et seq.
Clement XIV, 4, 436 et seq.
Clerc, 760, 916
Clergy, native, 262
Clermont, College of, 57, 115, 216, 273, 345
Clorivière, 671, 676, 691, 700, 720, 739, 751, 880, 916
Coblentz, 67
Cochin-China, 241-2
Cochin, 82, 771
Cochlæus, 42
Cocomaricopas, 319
Cocospera, 323
Codier, 354
Codure, 25, 29, 36, 39
Coeffler, 256
Coelho, 801
Coelho, 182
Coeurdoux, 233
Cogordan, 60, 100
Coimbra, 43, 443, 464, 542, 682, 743
Coleridge, 883
Collegio Pio-Latino, 853, 899
Collegium Germanicum, 50, 56, 66, 70, 345, 852, 891, 925
Collegium Maximum, 897
Collins, 149
Cologne, 42, 288, 345, 433, 837
Colombia, 304, 761
Colombiére, de, 385, 395, 402
Colonna, 208
Columbini, 639
Commendone, 113
Commerce, 445, 450, 457, 459
"Common Rules," 133, 728
Compania de Jesus, 7
Concanen, 706-7
Concordat, 687
Condé, 60, 63, 353, 356, 366, 391, 666
Confession, Seal of, 908
Confessor, Royal, 201
Congo, Belgian, 85, 822-4, 930
Congregations, General, 33, 37, 197, 210, 652, 657, 722-4, 727, 923
Congruism, 116
Coninck, 379
Connolly, 707
Consalvi, 572, 690, 703, 724, 864
Conscience, Account of, 33
Constantinople, 239, 267, 627, 632, 806, 809
Constitution, 31-5, 101, 133, 199, 207, 213, 381, 386, 484, 695, 728
Conti, 416
"Continental System," 686
Coppée, 360
Copts, 86, 805, 816
Cordara, 369, 572, 619, 924
Corea, 242, 249, 772
Corneille, 353
Cornelius a Lapide, 381
Correa, 127
Corrientes, 300
Cornely, 881-2
Cornoldi, 880
Corsica, 525, 615
Cortie, 841-2
Coton, 201, 290-1
Cottam, 141, 144, 146
Coulon, 702
Courtois, 357
Cracow, 763
Cranganore, 75
Crashaw, 360
Cremona, 181
Crétineau-Joly, 746
Crichton, 150, 152, 233
Crimea, 806
Criminali, 77, 81
Crimont, 781
Crisin, 915
Cristaldi, 698
Critonius, 149
Croix, Camille de la, 838-9
Croix, Etienne de la, 491-5
Crollanza, 617
Cruz, da, 452
Cruz, Gaspar de la, 245
Cubosama, 173, 175, 182
Cuevas, 880
Cullen, 909
Cuzco, 55, 214
Czecho-Slovakia, 924
Czerniewicz, 645-9 et seq
D
Dablon, 338
Dalmatia, 389, 758, 807
Daniel, 263, 282, 335-6, 339, 385, 598, 915
"De Auxiliis," 214
Decretals, Law of, 906
"De defectibus Societatis," 275
"De defensione fidei," 116
"De fide catholica," 889
Delehaye, 871
Demerara, 714, 941, 907
Denonville, de, 338
Denza, 835
Descartes, 129, 353
Dillingen, 43, 48, 67, 117, 346
"Directorium," 200
Discipline, 251-3
Dispensation, 33
Dissolution, 199
Dobrizhoffer, 840
Domenech, 56
Dominicans, 52, 76, 187, 189, 214, 245, 256, 265, 306, 312, 334, 464, 703, 706, 816
Dominis, de, 220, 289
Dominus ac Redemptor, 549-50, 552-76, 588-94, 638, 649, 690
Douai, 135, 138, 500
Dracontius, 836
[933]
Drama, 865-9
Dresden, 686
Drexellius, 396
Drury, 150, 164
Dublin, 149-50
Dublin, University of, 137
Duelling, 286
Dupin, 443, 748-50, 752
Duplessis-Mornay, 220
Duprez, 629
Duran, 373
Duvernay, 501
Dynamism, 623
E
Eck, 43
Ecuador, 425, 529, 761, 828
Education, 56, 64, 68, 343-57, 567, 639, 644, 647, 653, 658, 695, 704, 736, 745, 748, 778, 835-38, 853, 901
Egypt, 806, 816, 834, 862, 930
Elizabeth, Queen, 135, 141, 144, 152, 155, 182, 228, 274
"End justifies the Means," 287-9
England, 278, 424, 426, 612, 675, 681, 683, 685, 691, 703, 718, 743, 760, 764, 794, 828, 857, 876, 892, 927
England, John, 707-8
English College, 148, 152, 578
Equivocation, 286
"Etudes," 874
Examen, Particular, 14
Excommunication, 222-6
Exercises, 14
Expulsion, 212, 451, 462-70, 499-503, 513-29, 548, 553, 562, 566, 627, 720, 734, 743, 756-62, 828, 898, 920
F
Faber, Peter, Bl., 522sqq.
Faith, Fathers of the, 669sqq.
Falloux Law, 757
Farinelli, 505
Farmer, 906
Febronius, 433
Feller, 619
Fenwick, Benedict, 704
Finding of the Christians, 196
Flagellants, 92
Flesselles, de, 491
Fourquevaux, Baron de, 41
Francis Borgia, St., 53, 102, 117sqq.
Francis Xavier, St., 5, 29, 166sqq.
Francis Regis, St., 775
Franzelin, 877, 889
French Revolution, 626
G
Gago, 166
Gallitzin, 713
Gallicanism, 416, 494, 609
Garnet, 147
Garnier, Charles, 336
Garreau, 338
Gaudan, 40
Georgetown, 704sqq.
Gerard, 160
Gioberti, 755
Goa, 74
Goes, 250
Goldwell, 138
González, Tirso, 415
Goupil, 336
Grässel, 616, 713
Grassi, 679, 704
Gregory de Valencia, 374
Gresset, 353
Grivel, 666
Grou, 354, 619
Gruber, 658sqq.
Guidiccioni, 31
Gunpowder Plot, 143sqq.
H
Hagenbrünn, 667
Hay, 150
Hedley, 821
Hell, 618
Hélot, 772
Henry IV, 60, 113
Hindostan, 242
Hirando, 168
Hoensbroech, 288
Hontheim, 433
Hôtel Dieu, 594
Howard, Cardinal, 408
Hozes, 25
Hungarian College, 69
Hurons, 335
Hurter, 866
I
Ibáñez, 203
Iberville, 307
Ignatius Loyola, St., 5-13, 21-4, 36, 71, 75, 93, 96-9
Inquisition, 21, 127, 200, 225sqq.
Iroquois, 320
Isla, 366
Ivory Coast, 824
J
Jafanapatam, 233
Japan, 73, 78, 166-196
James II, 403
Jansenists, 221, 417, 573
Jesuati, 1
Jogues, 336sqq.
John Berchmans, St., 382
John Casimir, 403
John Francis Regis, St., 383
Joseph II, 421, 547, 604
K
Kabyles, 814
Kandy, 805
Kareu, 652
Kaunitz, 421
Kenny, 715, 892
King, Thomas, 772
Kino, 316, 372
Kleutgen, 879
Knight, 595
Kohlmann, 659, 706, 878
Krudner, Mme., 717
L
Laennec, 738
Lafargeville, 263
Lafitaux, 840
La Flèche, 118, 218
Lafrenière, 502
Lahore, 229
Laimbeckhoven, 603
Laínez, 5
Lalande, 336
Lalemant, Charles, 291
Lallemant, Louis, 396
Lancicius, 381, 385, 396
[934]
La Petite Eglise, 675
Larkin, 913
Lascaris, 831
Laval, Scholasticate, 757
Laval, Montmorency de, 244-5, 337
Lavigerie, 815
Lazarists, 627, 633-4
Le Camus, 280
Le Jay, 25, 29-30
Ledóchowski, Wladimir, 926
Lehmkuhl, 288, 886
Leibnitz, 361, 377
Le Moyne, 337
Leo XII (della Genga), 676, 722, 848, 909
Lessius, 114, 147
Lewger, 339, 706
Liberatore, 874
Ligny, de, 619
Litta, 693-4
Loisy, 886
Longhaye, 857
Loretto, 329
Loriquet, 702, 878
Louisiana, 425-6, 500-2
Louis-le-Grand, 353-5
Louvain, 57
Lower California, 315-8
Ludolph of Saxony, 1, 12
Lugo, de, 21, 116-7
M
Macao, 189
Macartney, Lord, 681
McCarthy, 739
McCloskey, 909
Macedo, Antonio, 128-9
Macedonio, 549-50, 574-5, 577
Machado, 187, 372
McSherry, 913
Madagascar, 816-20
Madras, 769
Madura, 230, 233-5
Magdeburg, Centuriators of, 49
Mai, 371
Mailla, de, 834, 861
Maimbourg, 367, 411
Maistre, de, 642
Malagrida, 453
Maldonado, 115, 381
Malesherbes, 353
Malta, 528
Manera, 901
Mangalore, 75
Manila Observatory, 851-2
Manresa, 13, 703
Maranhão, 425
Marefoschi, 539
Margry, 291
Mariana, 205, 274-5
Maria Theresa, Empress of Austria, 419, 432, 616, 638, 869
Marie Antoinette, 434
Marie de L'Incarnation, 307
Marie Leczinska, 618
Maronites, 239
Marot, 30
Marquette, 338, 372, 921
Martin, Felix, 873
Martin, Luis, 37, 369
Martinique, 306, 311
Maryland, 262, 339-41, 595, 832, 908, 929
Massé, 291, 334-5
Massillon, 364
Mastrilli, 193
Mattei, 694, 724
Maury, 366, 849
Mazzella, 879, 901, 914
Mazzini, 755
Melanchthon, 42-3, 45, 846
Ménard, 338
Mendoza, Bp. of Cuzco, 214
Mercurian, 34, 36
Meschler, 883
Meurin, 800
Mexico, 54, 221-7, 929
Michelet, 745, 754
Miège, 913
Milan, 138, 181
Milner, 704
Mindanao, 777
Mingrelia, 239, 806
Mirón, 92-3
Missal, Chinese, 261, 264
Missions Etrangères, 241
Mohawks, 307
Mohilew, 646-7, 649, 657, 718
Moigno, François, 839
Molinism, 102, 116, 379, 575
Molyneux, 425
Monita secreta, 270, 275-7
Montalembert, 745-6, 749
Montecorvo, 439
Montlosier, 737, 739
Montluc, 41
Montmartre, 24
Montreal, 428
Monts, de, 334
Montserrat, 12
"Monumenta historica Societatis Jesu," 924
Morcelli, 837
Moscow, 267, 643, 686
Mürr, 472, 503
Muzloum, 808
Muzzarelli, 624
Mysore, 233
N
Nagasaki, 174, 184-7, 189, 193-6, 383
Naples, 111, 199, 210, 392, 427, 439, 506, 537, 542, 587, 611, 756
Navarrete, 257, 259, 262, 332
Neale, Leonard, 616, 706, 713, 907
Negroes, 305, 311, 503, 712, 812-24
New Orleans, 500, 594, 833, 926, 929
New York, 263, 338, 706, 764, 828, 832, 907, 911, 929
New York Literary Institute, 706, 908
Nicaragua, 777
Nieremberg y Otin, 11, 395, 381
Nigeria, 824
Nobili, de, 230-3, 292-3, 396, 424, 768
Nobrega, 87-90
Nochistongo tunnel, 315
"Nomenclator," 877
Norridgewock, 709
Nossi-Bé, 817
Notobirga, 275
Novices, 564
O
Oates, Titus, 402, 406-10, 407-9
Obedience, 92, 95, 911
Observatories, 840-5, 848, 851
Oceania, 930
Ochino, 30
Odescalchi, 893, 895sqq.
Office, Divine, 54, 101, 568
Office, Term of, 213
Ogilvie, 151
Ojetti, 883
Oldcorne, 161-4
[935]
Oliva, 260, 290, 391, 394, 399-402, 405, 408, 410
O'Reilly, Edmund, 878
Orientalists, 829, 862
Ormanetto, 199, 203.
Orsini, Cardinal, 396, 530, 535sqq.
Oviedo, 36, 56, 59, 85, 104, 161-2, 194
Oxford, 136, 764
P
Pacca, 433-4, 442, 542, 606, 611, 618, 687-94, 698, 703, 724
Palafox, 221-7, 544, 546
Pallavicini, 380, 396, 635, 892
Pampeluna, 9, 10, 11, 304
Pancaldi, 722
Papebroch, 869
Paphlagonia, 239
Paraguay, 299-304, 347, 373, 418, 425, 444-8, 454, 509, 627, 762, 774, 776
Pariahs, 235, 802
Paris, 22, 36, 118, 243, 281, 671, 699, 747-8, 757, 761
Paris, Parliament of, 3, 15, 56, 63, 216, 280, 401, 485, 493, 497, 631, 748
Paris, University of, 56, 70, 748, 927
Parma, 210, 439, 528, 637, 669, 677, 699
Pascal, 278, 281-7, 295
"Pascendi Munus," 588
Passaglia, 887, 898
Passionei, 422, 456
Patrizi, 878, 881
Paul III, Pope, 15, 28, 31, 34, 38, 556, 728, 918
Paul IV, Pope, 35, 46, 71, 101, 173, 198, 553, 556
Paul V, Pope, 56, 116, 157, 264, 390, 556, 559
"Paulistas," 392
Pazmany, 68, 396
Pearl Fisheries, 74
Pekin, 249, 252, 254, 256, 258-61, 265, 629, 633, 790
Perinde ac cadaver, 35
Periodicals, 874-6
Persia, 239, 244, 267, 410, 424, 806
Persons, 136, 138-40, 151-55, 164, 177, 499
Peru, 54, 272, 295-98, 425, 529
Peruvian bark, 299
Pesch, 288, 880
Pétau (Petavius), 118, 395
Peter Claver, St., 305, 383, 396, 901, 915
Petre, 402
Petrucci, 721-4
Philip II, King of Spain, 54, 100, 113, 116, 131, 151, 177, 181, 202, 204, 207, 209-13, 274, 296, 333, 344, 420, 557
Philippines, 183, 189, 191, 245, 255, 333, 376, 426, 476, 785, 835, 930
Philosophy, 355-7, 378-80
Piedmont, 756
Pignatelli, Joseph, 511, 523, 525, 658, 677, 726, 863, 911, 916
Pimas, 318-21, 323
Pious Fund, 328
Pius V., St., Pope, 48, 49, 54, 100, 109, 113, 198, 439, 557
Pius VI, 521, 572, 586, 608-10, 614, 620, 624, 640, 649-51, 653-58, 667, 677, 684, 691, 712, 891
Pius VII, Pope, 5, 353, 572, 605, 624, 661, 675, 678, 683, 687-94, 697-9, 722-7, 733, 840, 864, 885, 891, 904
Pius VIII, 741, 893, 905
Pius IX, Pope, 16, 196, 732, 756, 849, 853, 854, 857, 874, 888-90, 898, 903-6, 905, 915
Plowden, 597, 674, 714, 732, 913
Poetry, 258-63, 856, 860
Poissy Colloquy, 60-63, 102
Poland, 124, 275, 357, 376, 404, 424, 546, 548, 587, 605, 634, 637, 643, 718, 722, 926, 929
Polotsk, 347, 644, 646, 650, 652, 657, 659-60, 664
Pombal, Marquis de, 419, 421, 430, 437, 442-79, 503, 509, 605, 612-15, 683, 703, 743
Pondicherry, 260, 292, 420, 631
"Popish Plot," 407
Portugal, 36, 42, 92, 126, 177, 242, 269, 344, 416, 421, 426, 430, 438, 442-79, 498, 502, 537, 550, 553, 587, 605, 612, 627, 682, 703, 742, 759, 764, 793, 815, 826, 876, 929
Possevin, 121-25, 129, 201, 208, 218
Poverty, 33, 249-51, 394, 397, 556, 728
Prague, 47, 67, 123, 138, 345, 388
Printing, 49, 55, 659, 829
Probabiliorism, 415
Probabilism, 380, 415, 575
Propaganda, 693, 897, 903
Property, 33, 222-23, 602, 616
Property, Confiscation of, 478, 485, 500, 513, 523, 528, 540, 548, 577, 720, 759
Prose, 366-67
Proselytism, 720
"Provinciales," of Pascal, 281-87, 689, 745
Prussia, 426, 635, 636-41, 686, 718, 758
Q
Quebec, 263, 291, 307, 334
Quesnel, 417, 575
Quinet, 282
R
Ragueneau, 337
Raleigh, 156sq.
Ramière, 883
Rasle, 709
"Ratio studiorum", 70, 200
Ravignan, de, 4, 435
Raymbault, 336
Raynal, 419
"Razón y Fe," 874sq.
Realini, Bernardino, 396
Recollect Friars, 334sq.
Redemptorists, 604
Reductions, Philippine, 777
Reductions of Paraguay, 301-04, 444-48
Reeve, 595, 619
Régale, 410-12
Reggio, 699
Regimini Militantis Ecclesiae, 31
Renaudot, 291
Relations, 871-4
Retz, 418sq
Rezzonico, 532
Rho, 259
Rhodes, Alexander de, 240-45
Ribadeneira, 36, 204
Riccadonna, 807sq
Ricci, Lorenzo, 419-22, 436, 440sq., 511, 521, 848
Ricci, Scipio, 609
Richelieu, 274, 388sq., 290
Riot of the Sombreros, 510sq., 546
Ripalda, 206, 876
Robaut, 781
Rodrigues, 176, 184
Rodriguez, Alphonsus, 381, 396
Rodriguez, Simon, 23, 24, 72
[936]
Roh, 921
Roman College, 69
Romberg, Assistant, 585
Roothaan, John, 398, 667, 706
Rosas, 762
Rosmini, 808
Rossi, Giovanni Battista de, 836
Rossi, Guizot's envoy, 750
Rosweyde, 370
Roth, 840
Rozaven, 625, 719 et seq., 898
Rubillon, Ambrose, 773
Russia, 841
Russian Church, 642
Ruthenia, 902
Ryllo, Maximilian, 811sq.
S
Sabbetti, 886
Sacchini, 369, 923
Sacred Heart, Fathers of the, 666-668
Sacred Heart, Ladies of the, 672 sq.
St. Acheul, 740
St. Bartholomew Massacre, 272
St. Beuno's, 764
St. Clement's Island, 339
Sainte-Beuve, 283 sq., 745
Saint-Germain-des-Prés, Chapel, 58
St. Julian, Castle, 469-472
Saint-Jure, 381
Saint Kitts, 306-310
St. Michel, Brussels, 870
St. Omers, 407
St. Sulpice, Society of, 244
St. Vincent, Admiral, 704
Saints, 914-5
Salamanca, 21
Saldanha, 421-2
Salmerón, Alphonsus, 21, 45
Salsette, 170, 229
Salvatierra, 222, 321
Sancian, Island of, 84
Sanguinetti, 883
San Sebastian, prison, 743
Sant' Andrea, 762
Sarbiewski, 359
Sardinia, 504, 758
Sarpi, 112, 220sq.
Sault Ste. Marie, 338
Sautel, 360
Saxony, 718
Scaramelli, 381
Schall, Adam, 254-261, 372
Scheiner, 848
Scholastics, 485
Schreiner, Christopher, 371
Science, 248-250, 631, 371, 834sq.
Scientia media, 215
Scotch Doctor, 38
Scotland, 40, 150
Secchi, 371, 835
Secret Members, of Jesuit Order, 35
Secularization, 600sq.
Sedeño, 333
Sedlmayer, 372
Segneri, 364
Segura, 54
Seminaries, 44, 65-67
Sequiera, 185
Sestini, 843sq.
Seven Years War, 425, 482sq.
Sewall, 732, 683
Shea, Gilmary, 873
Sherwin, 144
Shintoism, 166
Shogun, 175
Siam, 234
Sicily, 504
Sidgreaves, Walter, 841
Sierra Leone, 824
Siestrzencewicz, 643
Sigismond, King of Poland, 35, 122, 208
Silesia, 637
Silveira, 85
Simpson, 751
Sin (Mandarin), 250
Sin, Paul, see Zi, 771
"Sined," 860
Sioux, 779
Sirmond, 354
Si-Senoussi, Sheik and Jesuit Constitutions, 35
Sixtus V, Pope, p. 7, 111, 202, 180, 206-209, 556-558
Skarga, 367
Slingsby, Francis, 149sq.
Smet, Peter de, 779-81
Smolensk, 686
Smyrna, 239
Sobieski, John, 394, 397, 404
Sodalities, 68, 297, 738
Sollicitudo omnium ecclesiarum, 694-6
Sommervogel, 868
Sorbonne, 216-7, 290
Soto, 115
Sotwel, 867
Sousa, 87-8
Southey, 90
Southwell, 147-8, 358
Spain, 36, 43, 202-14, 51-3
Sparks, 908
"Speculum Jesuiticum," 273
Spee, von, 117, 361sqq.
Spinola, 185
Spiritual Exercises, 13-15, 381, 918sqq.
Squillace, 428, 507
Stanislaus Kostka, St., 48, 382, 418
Stanton, Father, 785-8
Staritza, 124
Statistics, 418-9, 550, 777, 800sqq.
Steinhüber, 887
Steins, 795
Stephens, 141sqq.
"Stimmen aus Maria-Laach," 874sqq.
Stone, 710
Stonestreet, 706
Stonyhurst, 500, 732
Strada, 36, 53, 56, 359
Strassmaier, 845, 863
Stritch. See Bathe
Stuart, Henry. See York, Cardinal of
Suárez, 21, 116, 281, 379, 390, 395, 416, 486, 876
Suau, 52sqq.
Sulpicians, 713
Superior, Lake, 336
Suppression, 442-603
Surin, 381, 395
Suttee, 804
Sweden, 120-24, 404, 681, 685
Swetchine, 730
Switzerland, 346, 587, 617, 728, 734, 740
Syria, 240, 632, 806-9, 929
T
Tamburini, 417-8, 575
Tamil, 231, 362
Tanucci, 421, 506 et seq.
Taparelli, 874
Tatary, 244, 770
Tegakwitha, 337-8
[937]
Theology, 378-81, 852, 864-5, 876-9, 885-90, 901.
Tibet, 237-8, 372, 378
Toletus, 5, 54, 112-5, 152, 197, 209-13, 215, 218, 379, 401, 876
Tongiorgi, 836, 878
Tonkin, 241, 245
Torres, Cosmo de, 76, 79, 93
Torres, 166-7, 169, 174, 188
Torres, Luis de, 381
Tournon, Charles-Thomas-Naillard, de, 259
Tournon, François de, 40, 60
Trent, Council of, 8, 33, 44-6, 48, 62, 108, 138, 150, 557, 563
Trichinopoly, 802, 805, 829
Tyburn, 141, 146
Tyrnau, 69
U
Ucondono, 172, 182-3, 189
Ugarte, 316, 326-7, 329-31
Uniates, 805-6, 811
"Unigenitus," 578
Urban VIII, 113, 119, 192, 255, 385, 390, 400, 560
Urban College, 894, 897
V
Valencia, Gregorio de, 21, 117-8, 215
Valignani, 173-4, 176, 183-5, 246-7
Valkenburg, 763, 875
Valladolid, 43, 83, 116, 151, 206, 406, 409
Van Ortroy, 384
Varin, 665, 669, 671-6, 701, 730, 733, 911
Vasa, House of, 404
Vasquez, Dionisio, 5-7, 199, 204-7, 209, 268
Vasquez, Gabriel, 21, 68, 379, 486
Verbiest, 257, 261, 264, 375, 377
Vicars General, 38, 651-2.
Vico, de, 371, 843, 848-9
Vieira, 126-8, 130, 192, 363, 367, 396, 449, 477
Villemain, 748-50, 754-5
Vilna, University of, 347, 660, 848
Vitelleschi, 269-71, 387, 390-2, 394, 396-8, 825
Vives y Tuto, 853
Vows, 32-3, 548, 557, 564, 609, 616, 659, 684, 746
W
Wadding, 315-6
Wasmann, 840
Waterclock, 625
Wauchope (Waucop), 38, 41
Wealth, 348, 445, 450, 481, 559
Weld, 431, 443, 820, 841
Wendrok. See Nicole
Wernz, 763, 828, 883, 904, 906, 926
White, 307, 339-40
Whitebread, 408
Whitemarsh, 712, 779
White Russia, 267, 735, 773
Witchcraft, 117, 361
Woodstock, 843
"Woodstock Letters," 875
World War, 761, 823, 828, 927
Würzburg, 48, 67, 346
Wynne, 866-7
X
Xavier, Francis. See Francis Xavier, St.
Xavier, Jerónimo, 229-30, 396
Ximenes, 618
Y
York, Cardinal of, 532, 548, 575, 596
York, Duke of, 408
Yu-heen, 792
Z
Zacatecas, 315
Zaccaria, 578, 619-21, 864, 877
Zahlé, 807, 809
Zambesi, 794, 820-2, 824, 930
Zapata, 39
Zelada, 549, 574
Zelanti, 534, 536
Zikawei, 771, 790-3, 828, 843
Zoology, 834
Zúñiga, de, 692, 703
Africa, 85 et seq.
Alcalá, 52
Alegambe, 867
Alegre, 370
Alexandria, 109, 811
Alfonso Rodriguez, St., 383
Algonquins, 338
Allen, Cardinal, 134sq.
Allouez, 338
Aloysius, St., 181
Alphonsus Liguori, St., 380, 604
Alva, Duke of, 428
Amaguchi, 167
Amherst, 594
Amiot, 632
Anchieta, 89
Anderledy, 763, 899
Andrada, 237, 372
Angiolini, 678
Angola, 85
Antilles, 306
Appellants, 153
Aquaviva, Claudius, 132sq.
Aquaviva, Rudolph, 75, 384
Aranda, 421, 507
Araoz, 36, 104, 203
Archetti, 648
Archipresbyterate, 153
Arévalo, 836
Armenians, 805
Arnauld, 11, 216, 277
Asia, 229 et seq.
Assembly of the Clergy, 412, 486
Aubeterre, 497, 530
Auger, 41, 57
Augustinus, 281
Avogado, 678
Avril, 266
Azevedo, 90, 384
B
Backer, de, 868
Baertz, 77
Bagnorea, 30
Bagotists, 244
Baius, 112
Balde, 358, 362
Ballerini, 878
Barat, Mme., 672
Baronius, 112
Basilians, 902
Bathe, Christopher, 307
Bathori, 123
Beaumont, de, 488, 588
Beguines, 2
Beirut, 807
Bellarmine, 68, 110, 215
Belloc, 285
Bengy, de, 761
Benislawski, 65
Bernis, Cardinal, 532sq.
Berryer, 737
Beschi, 233
Betagh, 912
Beard, 334
Biblical Institute, 764
Billiart, 673
Billot, Cardinal, 914
Blackwell, 153
Bobadilla, 21sqq.
Bobola, 384
Bollandists, 370, 869
Bonzes, 80, 256
Borgias, 102
Boscovich, 367, 622
Bossuet, 353
Bouhours, 367
Bourdaloue, 264, 283
Boxer uprising, 791
Brazil, 87 et seq.
Brébeuf, 291, 385
Bressani, 336
Britto, John de, 233
Broglie, Charles de, 665
Brouet, 25sqq.
Brugelette, 757
Brzozowski, 685
Bungo, 176
Busembaum, 380
Buteux, 338
Bye Plot, 157
C
Cabral, 87, 174-5
Calcutta, 764, 794-5, 801, 829, 843
California, 828, 833, 926, 929. See Lower California
Calvinists, 87, 334, 801
Cambrensis, 137
Campion, 134, 136-40, 143-6, 384, 857
Canada, 262, 291, 334-9, 425-6, 594, 711, 764, 781, 824, 874, 921
Canisius, Peter, 2, 23, 45, 51, 65, 67, 70, 102, 272, 345, 384, 598, 915
Canonization, 381-2
Canton, 248, 250, 252, 260-1, 930
Capuchins, 292, 312, 500, 911
Caraffa, 208, 225, 391, 549, 574
Carbonari, 894, 897
Carbonelle, 857
Cardinals, 914
Caribs, 309
Carinthia, 346, 376
Carlos, Don, 742
Carmelites, 801, 869
Carranza, 53
Carroll, Charles, 711
Carroll, John, 595, 616, 659, 674, 700, 706, 711, 732, 882, 906
Cartagena, 305, 314
Cartography, 253, 376, 631, 852, 861
Casaubon, 118-9, 221
Cases of Conscience, 290
Caste, 230, 250, 264, 797, 802
Casuistry, 285
Catechism, 38 (of Canisius, 49);
(of Trent), 54, 108
"Catechisme des jésuites," 273
Catherine II, Empress of Russia, 587, 605, 635, 641-60, 662, 677, 719
[932]
Catholic Encyclopedia, 866
Catholicæ Fidei, 38, 661, 694, 716
Cathrein, 288, 880
Caughnawaga, 338, 775
Cavalcanti, 853
Cayenne, 312, 841
Celibacy, 120
Centuriators of Magdeburg, 49
Ceylon, 802, 903, 929
Chabanel, 336, 385, 915
Challoner, 599, 602, 906
Charles V., Emperor, 9, 23, 38, 44, 51, 102, 344
Charles Borromeo, St., 15, 102, 138, 218
Charlevoix, 171, 370
Cheminais, 481
Chile, 298, 373, 425, 529, 627, 762, 774
China, 81, 124, 173, 245-67, 372, 375, 424, 470, 627, 679, 770, 776, 788-93, 824, 828, 834, 843, 861
Choiseul, Duc de, 314, 419, 429, 496, 500-3, 509, 512, 524, 535
Christina of Sweden, 128
"Civiltà Catolica," 874, 899
Clavigero, 369, 619
Clavius, 246, 355, 371
Clement VIII, 56, 111, 113, 118, 153-5, 157, 209, 213, 217, 240, 385, 436, 556
Clement XIII, 15, 422, 435 et seq.
Clement XIV, 4, 436 et seq.
Clerc, 760, 916
Clergy, native, 262
Clermont, College of, 57, 115, 216, 273, 345
Clorivière, 671, 676, 691, 700, 720, 739, 751, 880, 916
Coblentz, 67
Cochin-China, 241-2
Cochin, 82, 771
Cochlæus, 42
Cocomaricopas, 319
Cocospera, 323
Codier, 354
Codure, 25, 29, 36, 39
Coeffler, 256
Coelho, 801
Coelho, 182
Coeurdoux, 233
Cogordan, 60, 100
Coimbra, 43, 443, 464, 542, 682, 743
Coleridge, 883
Collegio Pio-Latino, 853, 899
Collegium Germanicum, 50, 56, 66, 70, 345, 852, 891, 925
Collegium Maximum, 897
Collins, 149
Cologne, 42, 288, 345, 433, 837
Colombia, 304, 761
Colombiére, de, 385, 395, 402
Colonna, 208
Columbini, 639
Commendone, 113
Commerce, 445, 450, 457, 459
"Common Rules," 133, 728
Compania de Jesus, 7
Concanen, 706-7
Concordat, 687
Condé, 60, 63, 353, 356, 366, 391, 666
Confession, Seal of, 908
Confessor, Royal, 201
Congo, Belgian, 85, 822-4, 930
Congregations, General, 33, 37, 197, 210, 652, 657, 722-4, 727, 923
Congruism, 116
Coninck, 379
Connolly, 707
Consalvi, 572, 690, 703, 724, 864
Conscience, Account of, 33
Constantinople, 239, 267, 627, 632, 806, 809
Constitution, 31-5, 101, 133, 199, 207, 213, 381, 386, 484, 695, 728
Conti, 416
"Continental System," 686
Coppée, 360
Copts, 86, 805, 816
Cordara, 369, 572, 619, 924
Corea, 242, 249, 772
Corneille, 353
Cornelius a Lapide, 381
Correa, 127
Corrientes, 300
Cornely, 881-2
Cornoldi, 880
Corsica, 525, 615
Cortie, 841-2
Coton, 201, 290-1
Cottam, 141, 144, 146
Coulon, 702
Courtois, 357
Cracow, 763
Cranganore, 75
Crashaw, 360
Cremona, 181
Crétineau-Joly, 746
Crichton, 150, 152, 233
Crimea, 806
Criminali, 77, 81
Crimont, 781
Crisin, 915
Cristaldi, 698
Critonius, 149
Croix, Camille de la, 838-9
Croix, Etienne de la, 491-5
Crollanza, 617
Cruz, da, 452
Cruz, Gaspar de la, 245
Cubosama, 173, 175, 182
Cuevas, 880
Cullen, 909
Cuzco, 55, 214
Czecho-Slovakia, 924
Czerniewicz, 645-9 et seq
D
Dablon, 338
Dalmatia, 389, 758, 807
Daniel, 263, 282, 335-6, 339, 385, 598, 915
"De Auxiliis," 214
Decretals, Law of, 906
"De defectibus Societatis," 275
"De defensione fidei," 116
"De fide catholica," 889
Delehaye, 871
Demerara, 714, 941, 907
Denonville, de, 338
Denza, 835
Descartes, 129, 353
Dillingen, 43, 48, 67, 117, 346
"Directorium," 200
Discipline, 251-3
Dispensation, 33
Dissolution, 199
Dobrizhoffer, 840
Domenech, 56
Dominicans, 52, 76, 187, 189, 214, 245, 256, 265, 306, 312, 334, 464, 703, 706, 816
Dominis, de, 220, 289
Dominus ac Redemptor, 549-50, 552-76, 588-94, 638, 649, 690
Douai, 135, 138, 500
Dracontius, 836
[933]
Drama, 865-9
Dresden, 686
Drexellius, 396
Drury, 150, 164
Dublin, 149-50
Dublin, University of, 137
Duelling, 286
Dupin, 443, 748-50, 752
Duplessis-Mornay, 220
Duprez, 629
Duran, 373
Duvernay, 501
Dynamism, 623
E
Eck, 43
Ecuador, 425, 529, 761, 828
Education, 56, 64, 68, 343-57, 567, 639, 644, 647, 653, 658, 695, 704, 736, 745, 748, 778, 835-38, 853, 901
Egypt, 806, 816, 834, 862, 930
Elizabeth, Queen, 135, 141, 144, 152, 155, 182, 228, 274
"End justifies the Means," 287-9
England, 278, 424, 426, 612, 675, 681, 683, 685, 691, 703, 718, 743, 760, 764, 794, 828, 857, 876, 892, 927
England, John, 707-8
English College, 148, 152, 578
Equivocation, 286
"Etudes," 874
Examen, Particular, 14
Excommunication, 222-6
Exercises, 14
Expulsion, 212, 451, 462-70, 499-503, 513-29, 548, 553, 562, 566, 627, 720, 734, 743, 756-62, 828, 898, 920
F
Faber, Peter, Bl., 522sqq.
Faith, Fathers of the, 669sqq.
Falloux Law, 757
Farinelli, 505
Farmer, 906
Febronius, 433
Feller, 619
Fenwick, Benedict, 704
Finding of the Christians, 196
Flagellants, 92
Flesselles, de, 491
Fourquevaux, Baron de, 41
Francis Borgia, St., 53, 102, 117sqq.
Francis Xavier, St., 5, 29, 166sqq.
Francis Regis, St., 775
Franzelin, 877, 889
French Revolution, 626
G
Gago, 166
Gallitzin, 713
Gallicanism, 416, 494, 609
Garnet, 147
Garnier, Charles, 336
Garreau, 338
Gaudan, 40
Georgetown, 704sqq.
Gerard, 160
Gioberti, 755
Goa, 74
Goes, 250
Goldwell, 138
González, Tirso, 415
Goupil, 336
Grässel, 616, 713
Grassi, 679, 704
Gregory de Valencia, 374
Gresset, 353
Grivel, 666
Grou, 354, 619
Gruber, 658sqq.
Guidiccioni, 31
Gunpowder Plot, 143sqq.
H
Hagenbrünn, 667
Hay, 150
Hedley, 821
Hell, 618
Hélot, 772
Henry IV, 60, 113
Hindostan, 242
Hirando, 168
Hoensbroech, 288
Hontheim, 433
Hôtel Dieu, 594
Howard, Cardinal, 408
Hozes, 25
Hungarian College, 69
Hurons, 335
Hurter, 866
I
Ibáñez, 203
Iberville, 307
Ignatius Loyola, St., 5-13, 21-4, 36, 71, 75, 93, 96-9
Inquisition, 21, 127, 200, 225sqq.
Iroquois, 320
Isla, 366
Ivory Coast, 824
J
Jafanapatam, 233
Japan, 73, 78, 166-196
James II, 403
Jansenists, 221, 417, 573
Jesuati, 1
Jogues, 336sqq.
John Berchmans, St., 382
John Casimir, 403
John Francis Regis, St., 383
Joseph II, 421, 547, 604
K
Kabyles, 814
Kandy, 805
Kareu, 652
Kaunitz, 421
Kenny, 715, 892
King, Thomas, 772
Kino, 316, 372
Kleutgen, 879
Knight, 595
Kohlmann, 659, 706, 878
Krudner, Mme., 717
L
Laennec, 738
Lafargeville, 263
Lafitaux, 840
La Flèche, 118, 218
Lafrenière, 502
Lahore, 229
Laimbeckhoven, 603
Laínez, 5
Lalande, 336
Lalemant, Charles, 291
Lallemant, Louis, 396
Lancicius, 381, 385, 396
[934]
La Petite Eglise, 675
Larkin, 913
Lascaris, 831
Laval, Scholasticate, 757
Laval, Montmorency de, 244-5, 337
Lavigerie, 815
Lazarists, 627, 633-4
Le Camus, 280
Le Jay, 25, 29-30
Ledóchowski, Wladimir, 926
Lehmkuhl, 288, 886
Leibnitz, 361, 377
Le Moyne, 337
Leo XII (della Genga), 676, 722, 848, 909
Lessius, 114, 147
Lewger, 339, 706
Liberatore, 874
Ligny, de, 619
Litta, 693-4
Loisy, 886
Longhaye, 857
Loretto, 329
Loriquet, 702, 878
Louisiana, 425-6, 500-2
Louis-le-Grand, 353-5
Louvain, 57
Lower California, 315-8
Ludolph of Saxony, 1, 12
Lugo, de, 21, 116-7
M
Macao, 189
Macartney, Lord, 681
McCarthy, 739
McCloskey, 909
Macedo, Antonio, 128-9
Macedonio, 549-50, 574-5, 577
Machado, 187, 372
McSherry, 913
Madagascar, 816-20
Madras, 769
Madura, 230, 233-5
Magdeburg, Centuriators of, 49
Mai, 371
Mailla, de, 834, 861
Maimbourg, 367, 411
Maistre, de, 642
Malagrida, 453
Maldonado, 115, 381
Malesherbes, 353
Malta, 528
Manera, 901
Mangalore, 75
Manila Observatory, 851-2
Manresa, 13, 703
Maranhão, 425
Marefoschi, 539
Margry, 291
Mariana, 205, 274-5
Maria Theresa, Empress of Austria, 419, 432, 616, 638, 869
Marie Antoinette, 434
Marie de L'Incarnation, 307
Marie Leczinska, 618
Maronites, 239
Marot, 30
Marquette, 338, 372, 921
Martin, Felix, 873
Martin, Luis, 37, 369
Martinique, 306, 311
Maryland, 262, 339-41, 595, 832, 908, 929
Massé, 291, 334-5
Massillon, 364
Mastrilli, 193
Mattei, 694, 724
Maury, 366, 849
Mazzella, 879, 901, 914
Mazzini, 755
Melanchthon, 42-3, 45, 846
Ménard, 338
Mendoza, Bp. of Cuzco, 214
Mercurian, 34, 36
Meschler, 883
Meurin, 800
Mexico, 54, 221-7, 929
Michelet, 745, 754
Miège, 913
Milan, 138, 181
Milner, 704
Mindanao, 777
Mingrelia, 239, 806
Mirón, 92-3
Missal, Chinese, 261, 264
Missions Etrangères, 241
Mohawks, 307
Mohilew, 646-7, 649, 657, 718
Moigno, François, 839
Molinism, 102, 116, 379, 575
Molyneux, 425
Monita secreta, 270, 275-7
Montalembert, 745-6, 749
Montecorvo, 439
Montlosier, 737, 739
Montluc, 41
Montmartre, 24
Montreal, 428
Monts, de, 334
Montserrat, 12
"Monumenta historica Societatis Jesu," 924
Morcelli, 837
Moscow, 267, 643, 686
Mürr, 472, 503
Muzloum, 808
Muzzarelli, 624
Mysore, 233
N
Nagasaki, 174, 184-7, 189, 193-6, 383
Naples, 111, 199, 210, 392, 427, 439, 506, 537, 542, 587, 611, 756
Navarrete, 257, 259, 262, 332
Neale, Leonard, 616, 706, 713, 907
Negroes, 305, 311, 503, 712, 812-24
New Orleans, 500, 594, 833, 926, 929
New York, 263, 338, 706, 764, 828, 832, 907, 911, 929
New York Literary Institute, 706, 908
Nicaragua, 777
Nieremberg y Otin, 11, 395, 381
Nigeria, 824
Nobili, de, 230-3, 292-3, 396, 424, 768
Nobrega, 87-90
Nochistongo tunnel, 315
"Nomenclator," 877
Norridgewock, 709
Nossi-Bé, 817
Notobirga, 275
Novices, 564
O
Oates, Titus, 402, 406-10, 407-9
Obedience, 92, 95, 911
Observatories, 840-5, 848, 851
Oceania, 930
Ochino, 30
Odescalchi, 893, 895sqq.
Office, Divine, 54, 101, 568
Office, Term of, 213
Ogilvie, 151
Ojetti, 883
Oldcorne, 161-4
[935]
Oliva, 260, 290, 391, 394, 399-402, 405, 408, 410
O'Reilly, Edmund, 878
Orientalists, 829, 862
Ormanetto, 199, 203.
Orsini, Cardinal, 396, 530, 535sqq.
Oviedo, 36, 56, 59, 85, 104, 161-2, 194
Oxford, 136, 764
P
Pacca, 433-4, 442, 542, 606, 611, 618, 687-94, 698, 703, 724
Palafox, 221-7, 544, 546
Pallavicini, 380, 396, 635, 892
Pampeluna, 9, 10, 11, 304
Pancaldi, 722
Papebroch, 869
Paphlagonia, 239
Paraguay, 299-304, 347, 373, 418, 425, 444-8, 454, 509, 627, 762, 774, 776
Pariahs, 235, 802
Paris, 22, 36, 118, 243, 281, 671, 699, 747-8, 757, 761
Paris, Parliament of, 3, 15, 56, 63, 216, 280, 401, 485, 493, 497, 631, 748
Paris, University of, 56, 70, 748, 927
Parma, 210, 439, 528, 637, 669, 677, 699
Pascal, 278, 281-7, 295
"Pascendi Munus," 588
Passaglia, 887, 898
Passionei, 422, 456
Patrizi, 878, 881
Paul III, Pope, 15, 28, 31, 34, 38, 556, 728, 918
Paul IV, Pope, 35, 46, 71, 101, 173, 198, 553, 556
Paul V, Pope, 56, 116, 157, 264, 390, 556, 559
"Paulistas," 392
Pazmany, 68, 396
Pearl Fisheries, 74
Pekin, 249, 252, 254, 256, 258-61, 265, 629, 633, 790
Perinde ac cadaver, 35
Periodicals, 874-6
Persia, 239, 244, 267, 410, 424, 806
Persons, 136, 138-40, 151-55, 164, 177, 499
Peru, 54, 272, 295-98, 425, 529
Peruvian bark, 299
Pesch, 288, 880
Pétau (Petavius), 118, 395
Peter Claver, St., 305, 383, 396, 901, 915
Petre, 402
Petrucci, 721-4
Philip II, King of Spain, 54, 100, 113, 116, 131, 151, 177, 181, 202, 204, 207, 209-13, 274, 296, 333, 344, 420, 557
Philippines, 183, 189, 191, 245, 255, 333, 376, 426, 476, 785, 835, 930
Philosophy, 355-7, 378-80
Piedmont, 756
Pignatelli, Joseph, 511, 523, 525, 658, 677, 726, 863, 911, 916
Pimas, 318-21, 323
Pious Fund, 328
Pius V., St., Pope, 48, 49, 54, 100, 109, 113, 198, 439, 557
Pius VI, 521, 572, 586, 608-10, 614, 620, 624, 640, 649-51, 653-58, 667, 677, 684, 691, 712, 891
Pius VII, Pope, 5, 353, 572, 605, 624, 661, 675, 678, 683, 687-94, 697-9, 722-7, 733, 840, 864, 885, 891, 904
Pius VIII, 741, 893, 905
Pius IX, Pope, 16, 196, 732, 756, 849, 853, 854, 857, 874, 888-90, 898, 903-6, 905, 915
Plowden, 597, 674, 714, 732, 913
Poetry, 258-63, 856, 860
Poissy Colloquy, 60-63, 102
Poland, 124, 275, 357, 376, 404, 424, 546, 548, 587, 605, 634, 637, 643, 718, 722, 926, 929
Polotsk, 347, 644, 646, 650, 652, 657, 659-60, 664
Pombal, Marquis de, 419, 421, 430, 437, 442-79, 503, 509, 605, 612-15, 683, 703, 743
Pondicherry, 260, 292, 420, 631
"Popish Plot," 407
Portugal, 36, 42, 92, 126, 177, 242, 269, 344, 416, 421, 426, 430, 438, 442-79, 498, 502, 537, 550, 553, 587, 605, 612, 627, 682, 703, 742, 759, 764, 793, 815, 826, 876, 929
Possevin, 121-25, 129, 201, 208, 218
Poverty, 33, 249-51, 394, 397, 556, 728
Prague, 47, 67, 123, 138, 345, 388
Printing, 49, 55, 659, 829
Probabiliorism, 415
Probabilism, 380, 415, 575
Propaganda, 693, 897, 903
Property, 33, 222-23, 602, 616
Property, Confiscation of, 478, 485, 500, 513, 523, 528, 540, 548, 577, 720, 759
Prose, 366-67
Proselytism, 720
"Provinciales," of Pascal, 281-87, 689, 745
Prussia, 426, 635, 636-41, 686, 718, 758
Q
Quebec, 263, 291, 307, 334
Quesnel, 417, 575
Quinet, 282
R
Ragueneau, 337
Raleigh, 156sq.
Ramière, 883
Rasle, 709
"Ratio studiorum", 70, 200
Ravignan, de, 4, 435
Raymbault, 336
Raynal, 419
"Razón y Fe," 874sq.
Realini, Bernardino, 396
Recollect Friars, 334sq.
Redemptorists, 604
Reductions, Philippine, 777
Reductions of Paraguay, 301-04, 444-48
Reeve, 595, 619
Régale, 410-12
Reggio, 699
Regimini Militantis Ecclesiae, 31
Renaudot, 291
Relations, 871-4
Retz, 418sq
Rezzonico, 532
Rho, 259
Rhodes, Alexander de, 240-45
Ribadeneira, 36, 204
Riccadonna, 807sq
Ricci, Lorenzo, 419-22, 436, 440sq., 511, 521, 848
Ricci, Scipio, 609
Richelieu, 274, 388sq., 290
Riot of the Sombreros, 510sq., 546
Ripalda, 206, 876
Robaut, 781
Rodrigues, 176, 184
Rodriguez, Alphonsus, 381, 396
Rodriguez, Simon, 23, 24, 72
[936]
Roh, 921
Roman College, 69
Romberg, Assistant, 585
Roothaan, John, 398, 667, 706
Rosas, 762
Rosmini, 808
Rossi, Giovanni Battista de, 836
Rossi, Guizot's envoy, 750
Rosweyde, 370
Roth, 840
Rozaven, 625, 719 et seq., 898
Rubillon, Ambrose, 773
Russia, 841
Russian Church, 642
Ruthenia, 902
Ryllo, Maximilian, 811sq.
S
Sabbetti, 886
Sacchini, 369, 923
Sacred Heart, Fathers of the, 666-668
Sacred Heart, Ladies of the, 672 sq.
St. Acheul, 740
St. Bartholomew Massacre, 272
St. Beuno's, 764
St. Clement's Island, 339
Sainte-Beuve, 283 sq., 745
Saint-Germain-des-Prés, Chapel, 58
St. Julian, Castle, 469-472
Saint-Jure, 381
Saint Kitts, 306-310
St. Michel, Brussels, 870
St. Omers, 407
St. Sulpice, Society of, 244
St. Vincent, Admiral, 704
Saints, 914-5
Salamanca, 21
Saldanha, 421-2
Salmerón, Alphonsus, 21, 45
Salsette, 170, 229
Salvatierra, 222, 321
Sancian, Island of, 84
Sanguinetti, 883
San Sebastian, prison, 743
Sant' Andrea, 762
Sarbiewski, 359
Sardinia, 504, 758
Sarpi, 112, 220sq.
Sault Ste. Marie, 338
Sautel, 360
Saxony, 718
Scaramelli, 381
Schall, Adam, 254-261, 372
Scheiner, 848
Scholastics, 485
Schreiner, Christopher, 371
Science, 248-250, 631, 371, 834sq.
Scientia media, 215
Scotch Doctor, 38
Scotland, 40, 150
Secchi, 371, 835
Secret Members, of Jesuit Order, 35
Secularization, 600sq.
Sedeño, 333
Sedlmayer, 372
Segneri, 364
Segura, 54
Seminaries, 44, 65-67
Sequiera, 185
Sestini, 843sq.
Seven Years War, 425, 482sq.
Sewall, 732, 683
Shea, Gilmary, 873
Sherwin, 144
Shintoism, 166
Shogun, 175
Siam, 234
Sicily, 504
Sidgreaves, Walter, 841
Sierra Leone, 824
Siestrzencewicz, 643
Sigismond, King of Poland, 35, 122, 208
Silesia, 637
Silveira, 85
Simpson, 751
Sin (Mandarin), 250
Sin, Paul, see Zi, 771
"Sined," 860
Sioux, 779
Sirmond, 354
Si-Senoussi, Sheik and Jesuit Constitutions, 35
Sixtus V, Pope, p. 7, 111, 202, 180, 206-209, 556-558
Skarga, 367
Slingsby, Francis, 149sq.
Smet, Peter de, 779-81
Smolensk, 686
Smyrna, 239
Sobieski, John, 394, 397, 404
Sodalities, 68, 297, 738
Sollicitudo omnium ecclesiarum, 694-6
Sommervogel, 868
Sorbonne, 216-7, 290
Soto, 115
Sotwel, 867
Sousa, 87-8
Southey, 90
Southwell, 147-8, 358
Spain, 36, 43, 202-14, 51-3
Sparks, 908
"Speculum Jesuiticum," 273
Spee, von, 117, 361sqq.
Spinola, 185
Spiritual Exercises, 13-15, 381, 918sqq.
Squillace, 428, 507
Stanislaus Kostka, St., 48, 382, 418
Stanton, Father, 785-8
Staritza, 124
Statistics, 418-9, 550, 777, 800sqq.
Steinhüber, 887
Steins, 795
Stephens, 141sqq.
"Stimmen aus Maria-Laach," 874sqq.
Stone, 710
Stonestreet, 706
Stonyhurst, 500, 732
Strada, 36, 53, 56, 359
Strassmaier, 845, 863
Stritch. See Bathe
Stuart, Henry. See York, Cardinal of
Suárez, 21, 116, 281, 379, 390, 395, 416, 486, 876
Suau, 52sqq.
Sulpicians, 713
Superior, Lake, 336
Suppression, 442-603
Surin, 381, 395
Suttee, 804
Sweden, 120-24, 404, 681, 685
Swetchine, 730
Switzerland, 346, 587, 617, 728, 734, 740
Syria, 240, 632, 806-9, 929
T
Tamburini, 417-8, 575
Tamil, 231, 362
Tanucci, 421, 506 et seq.
Taparelli, 874
Tatary, 244, 770
Tegakwitha, 337-8
[937]
Theology, 378-81, 852, 864-5, 876-9, 885-90, 901.
Tibet, 237-8, 372, 378
Toletus, 5, 54, 112-5, 152, 197, 209-13, 215, 218, 379, 401, 876
Tongiorgi, 836, 878
Tonkin, 241, 245
Torres, Cosmo de, 76, 79, 93
Torres, 166-7, 169, 174, 188
Torres, Luis de, 381
Tournon, Charles-Thomas-Naillard, de, 259
Tournon, François de, 40, 60
Trent, Council of, 8, 33, 44-6, 48, 62, 108, 138, 150, 557, 563
Trichinopoly, 802, 805, 829
Tyburn, 141, 146
Tyrnau, 69
U
Ucondono, 172, 182-3, 189
Ugarte, 316, 326-7, 329-31
Uniates, 805-6, 811
"Unigenitus," 578
Urban VIII, 113, 119, 192, 255, 385, 390, 400, 560
Urban College, 894, 897
V
Valencia, Gregorio de, 21, 117-8, 215
Valignani, 173-4, 176, 183-5, 246-7
Valkenburg, 763, 875
Valladolid, 43, 83, 116, 151, 206, 406, 409
Van Ortroy, 384
Varin, 665, 669, 671-6, 701, 730, 733, 911
Vasa, House of, 404
Vasquez, Dionisio, 5-7, 199, 204-7, 209, 268
Vasquez, Gabriel, 21, 68, 379, 486
Verbiest, 257, 261, 264, 375, 377
Vicars General, 38, 651-2.
Vico, de, 371, 843, 848-9
Vieira, 126-8, 130, 192, 363, 367, 396, 449, 477
Villemain, 748-50, 754-5
Vilna, University of, 347, 660, 848
Vitelleschi, 269-71, 387, 390-2, 394, 396-8, 825
Vives y Tuto, 853
Vows, 32-3, 548, 557, 564, 609, 616, 659, 684, 746
W
Wadding, 315-6
Wasmann, 840
Waterclock, 625
Wauchope (Waucop), 38, 41
Wealth, 348, 445, 450, 481, 559
Weld, 431, 443, 820, 841
Wendrok. See Nicole
Wernz, 763, 828, 883, 904, 906, 926
White, 307, 339-40
Whitebread, 408
Whitemarsh, 712, 779
White Russia, 267, 735, 773
Witchcraft, 117, 361
Woodstock, 843
"Woodstock Letters," 875
World War, 761, 823, 828, 927
Würzburg, 48, 67, 346
Wynne, 866-7
X
Xavier, Francis. See Francis Xavier, St.
Xavier, Jerónimo, 229-30, 396
Ximenes, 618
Y
York, Cardinal of, 532, 548, 575, 596
York, Duke of, 408
Yu-heen, 792
Z
Zacatecas, 315
Zaccaria, 578, 619-21, 864, 877
Zahlé, 807, 809
Zambesi, 794, 820-2, 824, 930
Zapata, 39
Zelada, 549, 574
Zelanti, 534, 536
Zikawei, 771, 790-3, 828, 843
Zoology, 834
Zúñiga, de, 692, 703
Printed in U. S. A.
Press of
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Albany, N. Y.
J. B. Lyon Company
Albany, N. Y.
Transcriber's Notes
Simple typographical errors were corrected.Punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed.
Some unbalanced quotation marks could not be resolved; the same inconsistencies appear in at least one other edition of this work.
Many names are similar, differing only in the use of accent marks; some Index entries have been made consistent with their references, but most other differences and inconsistencies have not been changed.
"despatch" and "dispatch" both occur in this book.
Page 377: "1620-1740" changed to "1620-1704" to match actual lifespan of Heinrich Scherer.
Page 416: "González's appeared" probably should be "González's name appeared".
Page 792: "Father Lomüller" may be the "Léon Müller" on page 916.
Index entry "Wendrok. See Nicole" refers to a non-existent entry.
Index entries for "Demerara" and "Pius VI" corrected.
Cover created by Transcriber and placed in the Public Domain.
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